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History of Syriac Literature
and Sciences

Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum
wa al-Adab al-Suryaniyya

■ .V

Ignatius Aphram Barsoum (1887-1957)
Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and All the East

History of Syriac
Literature
and Sciences

(Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur fi Tarikh
al-Ulum wa al-Adab al-Suryaniyya)

Ignatius Aphram Barsoum (1887-1957)
Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and All the East

Translated, Edited and with an Introduction

Matti Moosa

Passeggiata Press

First English Translation of The History of Syriac Literature and Sciences
by Patriarch Ingnatius Aphram I
Translated by Dr. Matti Moosa

Passeggiata Press, 222 West “B” Street, Pueblo, CO 81003

Library' of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ighnatyus Afram I, Patriarch of Antioch, 1887-1957.

[Lu'lu' al-manthur fi tarikha al-'ulum wa-al-adab al-Suryaniyah. English] The history of Syriac
literature and sciences = (Kitab al-lulu al-manthur fi tankh Al-ulum wa al-adab al-Suryaniyya) /
by Ignatius Aphram Barsoum; translated, edited, and with an introduction by Matti Moosa, --1st
English language ed.
p.cm.

“The original Arabic version of this work was published in 1943 in Hims, Syria... This
translation is based on the second reprint. Aleppo, 1956"--Galley.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-57889-103-5

1. Assyrians. 2. Iraq-Civilization. 3. Syriac literature -History and Critism. I. Title: Kitab al-
lulu al-manthur fi tarikh al-ulum wa al-adab al-Suryaniyya. II. Moosa, Matti. III. Title.

DS70.8 A89 13813 2000
956.7~dc21

00-048730

The photograph of Aphram I is the property of the Archdiocese of the Syrian Orthodox
Church for the Eastern States Patriarch Vicarate.

The bold script in Syriac above the Lord’s Prayer on the Front cover gives the original title
“Unstrung Pearls in the History of Syriac Literature and Science”.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner
whatsoever without written permission from the publisher except for brief quotations in
reviews and citations in scholarly works.

Author’ s Dedication

To my venerable mother Susan Abd al-Nur,
to whom I owe my good upbringing.
May God reward and sustain her.

Translator’s Dedication

In Loving Memory of Bishop Gregorius
Bulus Bahnam (d. 1969) A Luminary of
the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch

Translator’s Introduction

The systematic study of Syriac literature and sciences
and related subjects was a Western development, begin-
ning in Europe at the end of the seventeenth century.
Curiously, the Syrians and other Eastern writers have
only recently devoted themselves to the scholarly study
of Syriac literature.

Even the art of poetry, considered one of the Syrians’
foremost literary achievements, has had only scant at-
tention from Syrian writers. Now lost is a treatment of
that subject by Severus bar Shabbo, a metropolitan of
the Monastery of Mar Matta, near Mosul, Iraq, in the
early 13th century. In 1875, Rev. Jabrail Qirdahi pub-
lished a treatise in Arabic on the meters of Syriac poetry,
along with short biographies of some Syrian poets and
specimens of their work, but he gave no historical
account of its development. In 1896, the Syrian Roman
Catholic bishop of Damascus, Monsignor Yusuf Dawood
(David), treated Syrian poetry and prosody in the final
chapter of his extensive grammar of the Aramaean
language. The Rev. Bulus (Paul) Bahnam, the late
Syrian Orthodox Metropolitan of Iraq (d. 1969) , wrote
for his Arabic magazine al-Mashriq ( 1946-53) a series of
articles on Syrian culture. In 1949, two Egyptian profes-
sors of Semitic studies at the University of Fuad I in
Cairo published a History of Syriac Literature, an unfortu-
nate work derivative in character and lacking annota-
tion.

The first Western study of Syriac literature, by the
learned French scholar Eusebe Renaudot, who died in
1720, has been highly praised by J. B. Chabot. 1 This
manuscript was never published, however, and was
consequently overshadowed by Guiseppe Simone
Assemani’s four-volume Bibliotheca Orientalis, the first
volume of which appeared in 1719. Later writers on the
subject have been more than slightly indebted to this
nearly exhaustive work. William Wright’s Syriac Litera-
ture (London, 1894) originally appeared in the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica in 1887 and was expanded for its post-
humous publication in book form. La Litterature Syriaque,
by Rubens Duval (Paris, 1889), provides a neatly orga-
nized, comprehensive history of Syriac literature down
to the 13th century. Still another important work,
Geschichte der syrischen Literatur, by Anton Baumstark
(Bonn, 1922), presents copious references and notes,
but its information seems too compressed for the non-
specialist. The second volume of Georg Grafs five-

volume Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur
(Vatican City, 1944-53) is highly valuable for the study
of the Christian literature of tjie Syrian Church follow-
ing the Muslim conquest.

The study of Syriac literature, then, originated in the
East, but was brought to its fullest development by
Western writers. As Assemani, an Easterner by birth and
tradition, used his important knowledge to shape West-
ern ideas on Syriac literature, so today it is the Western-
ers following his lead who have formulated the views
generally accepted in the East.

It is against this rather tenuous, uncertain back-
ground that Patriarch Barsoum projects his “Unstrung
Pearls.” We can justly appraise his historical account
only by acknowledging its indebtedness to earlier schol-
arship, yet recognizing its uniqueness in an exagger-
ated nationalistic tone and in an unremitting accumu-
lation of compendious, detailed information. Bishop
G. P. Bahnam, in Nafahat al-Khuzam, 2 has given us abun-
dant information on the life of Patriarch Barsoum.
Born on June 15, 1887, in Mosul, Iraq, Barsoum re-
ceived his early education in a private Dominican school,
studying French and Turkish as well as religious litera-
ture and history; later he learned Arabic under the
training of Muslim scholars. At the Zafaran Monastery
in Mardin, Turkey, where he started his theological
training in 1905, he gave himself to the study of the
Syriac language and literature. After his ordination as a
priest in 1908, he remained at the monastery to teach,
and in 191 1 he assumed the additional responsibility of
managing the monastery press. Later in that year he
began a scientific journey to all the monasteries and
churches of Mesopotamia and Turkey. Soon after his
return in 1913 he made another similar trip to examine
the Syriac manuscripts in the great libraries of Europe.

On May 20, 1918, Patriarch Elias III named Barsoum
bishop of Syria, and after World War I he gained
national recognition not only as a man of religion, but
also as a man of learning. He championed the cause of
Syrian unity, winning firm popular support by his admo-
nition to the French to regard themselves as liberators
rather than conquerors. In 1919, he was chosen to
represent the national rights of the Syrian community
in the peace settlement at Paris. He was disillusioned
however, by the atmosphere of self-interest which pre-
vailed among the delegates represen ting theEuropean
powers, and at one stage of the conference found
himself defending not only the rights of the Syrians, but
those of the Arab nations. Though Barsoum did not
succeed in protecting the Syrians’ interests at Paris, the
journey yet gave him ample opportunity for further
study of Syriac literature before his return in May, 1920.
Two years later, the League of Nations’ action making
Syria a French mandate brought him the new responsi-
bility of providing for refugees from Cilicia, and he also
undertook the building of many new churches in and
near Aleppo.

vii

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Another journey took Barsoum to Geneva and
Lausanne as an apostolic delegate to the World Confer-
ence on Faith and Order (August 3-21, 1927). Soon
afterwards he came as an emissary of the Patriarch to the
United States, where he investigated the condition of
the Syrian Orthodox Church, consecrated three new
churches, and ordained new priests. He also gave lec-
tures on the Syriac language and literature at Provi-
dence University and the University of Chicago, and
served at the Oriental Institute of the latter institution
until his return in 1929.

After the death of Patriarch Elias III in 1932, the
Synod of Bishops named Barsoum his acting successor.
On January 30, 1933, he was formally elected Patriarch
of Antioch, assuming the ecclesiastical name of Mar
Ignatius Aphram I Barsoum. The new Patriarch quickly
showed himself an active Church head, establishing
new dioceses and founding a theological seminary at
Zahla, Lebanon (later moved to Mosul, and then to
Beirut), and served as its leader until his death on June
23, 1957.

Despite the numerous responsibilities of his work in
the Church and frequent interruptions for travel,
Barsoum devoted much of his time to writing. Chief
among his published works are the following:

1) treatise refuting al-Zahra al-Dhakiyya ft al-
Balriyarkiyya al-Suryaniyya al-Antakiyya, written by Ishaq
Armala in 1909. After this refutation appeared in 1910,
Armala apparently replied, for Barsoum published an-
other refutation in 1912.

2 ) Kitab al-Tuhfa al-Ruhiyya fi al-Salat al-Fardiyya ( “The
Golden Key of the Obligatory Prayers”), 1911.

3) al-Zahra al-Qudsiyya fi al-Talim al-Masihi (“The
Divine Flower of the Christian Catechism”), 1912.

4) Nuzhal al-Adhhan fi Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran (“The
Excursion of the Mind in the History of Zafaran”), 1912.

5) a translation of Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (“The Training
of Characters”), by Yahya Ibn Adi, published in Journal
of Semitic Languages and Literature, 1928.

6) an edition of Bar Hebraeus’ Risala fi Ilm al-Nafs al-
Insaniyya (“A Treatise on the Human Soul”), 1938.

7) a translation of Bar Hebraeus’ Kitab Hadith al-
Hikma (“The Speech of Wisdom”), 1940.

8) al-Durar al-Nafisa fi Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Kanisa
(“The Precious Pearls of the Compendious History of
the Church”), 1940.

9) al-Lulu al-Manthur (“The Unstrung Pearls”), 1943.

10) al-Alfaz al-Suryaniyya fi al-Maajim al-Arabiyya
(“Syriac Words in the Arabic Lexicons”), 1951.

1 1 ) Qithar al-Qulub ( “The Harp of the Hearts”) , a
volume of collected poems, published in 1954.

Patriarch Barsoum produced many otherworkswhich
have never been published. His Syriac-Arabic lexicon
and his compendium of church history in the 20th
century are written in both Syriac and Arabic. His

history ofTur Abdin, in Syriac, has been translated into
Arabic by Bishop Bahnam. In Arabic, he also wrote a
history of the Patriarchs of Antioch and the famous men
of the Syrian Church; a history of Syrian dioceses; an
index of Syriac manuscripts; and translations of ten
liturgies of the Syrian Church. Also, he translated into
Arabic the second part of the Ecclesiastical History of Bar
Hebraeus in 1909 when he was a monk at the Monastery
of Zafaran. The unique copy of this translation is now in
the possession of this editor.

Al-Lulu al-Manthur was not, then, the solitary work of
an unlearned Eastern Patriarch, but part of the consid-
erable output of a man thoroughly conversant with his
subject.

What purpose did Barsoum have in writing this
book? We may begin to answer this question by consid-
ering its title. The French title, Histoire des Sciences et de la
Litterature Syriaque, misleadingly suggests that the book
resembles the Western studies of Syriac literature. We
should prefer the Arabic Title, Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur
fi Tarikh al-Ulum wal-Adab al-Suryaniyya (“The Unstrung
Pearls of the History of Syriac Sciences and Literature”) ,
which implies metaphorically that the work aims to
present information which lies outside the scope of
Western studies. The Introduction, written not only in
Arabic but also in French and Syriac, indicates more
exactly the nature of the work. Barsoum states that he
hopes to fill the existing gaps in the knowledge of Syriac
literature, and to pay tribute to the language of his
church. He notes that at the beginning of the present
century there commenced a revival of interest in the
history of science and literature, but adds that “Aramaean
science and literature” have received insufficient treat-
ment from Western writers. Duval, Wright, Baumstark,
and Chabot, he says, have devoted their attention to
what they recognize as “science and literature” in the
general sense (but, it is implied, they have passed over
the extensive body of sacred literature in Syriac). Also,
Barsoum notes, of these writers only Baumstark gives
any consideration to Syriac literature after the end of
the thirteenth century. Barsoum proposes to treat here
several subjects omitted by earlier writers, including
calligraphy, versification, the rites of the Church, geo-
graphical sketches of Syrian cities, historical documents,
the history of Syriac literature since 1290, and works and
manuscripts previously unknown. In another chapter
he summarizes the works of those Orientalists who have
preserved Syrian culture and criticizes writers who have
sought to lessen the influence of the Syrians’ knowl-
edge.

The immediate audience for which Barsoum writes
includes two groups: historiographers and philologists
seeking further knowledge of Syriac literature, and the
faithful members of the Syrian Church, whose national
feeling he hopes “may be reinvigorated in their ances-
tral spirit.” Additional evidence of the restricted audi-
ence to which the book appeals lies in the assertion that

vui

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

it “treats only Western Syrian scholars and writers to the
exclusion of the Eastern Syrians (Nestorians) and what
is known of the meager culture of the Malkites and the
Maronites.” For Barsoum, the prospect of a fruitful and
beneficial “social result,” the resurrection of the cul-
tural heritage of the Syriac-speaking community, is full
recompense for the difficulties and material expenses
of preparing this work, which represents the “fruit of
our untiring labor over a period covering nearly a third
of a century of our episcopal and patriarchal life.”

Structurally, the book is divided into three distinct
sections. The first, containing thirty-one chapters, con-
cerns the religious literature and other related writings
extant in Syriac. After introductory chapters on the
Syriac language and literature, and expositions on Syr-
ian centers of learning and libraries, Barsoum treats in
detail the Christian literature which has survived, in-
cluding liturgies, the books of rituals used in the Church,
and the lives of great men of the Church. The second
part presents biographies of 293 prominent Syrian
writers; fifty-six of these have not been previously cited
by Western writers. In the third part are appendices
giving the names of Syrian calligraphers, meanings of
foreign terms in the book, geographical names, lists of
monasteries, an index of biographical references, and
lists of saints.

Judged in terms of its author’s stated purpose, al-
Lulu al-Manthur must be considered highly successful.
In fact, it was received enthusiastically not only by the
members of the Syriac-speaking community for whom
it was written, but also by Roman Catholic and Muslim
scholars. Viscount Philip de Tarrazi, a Roman Catholic
writer, offered this judgment:

Al-Lulu al-Manthuris indeed a very valuable work
which deserves respectand consideration. Its learned
author has enumerated the compositions of the
famous writers and scientists from ancient times
down to the present, in greater detail than any
author before his time. His opening chapters dem-
onstrate his thorough knowledge of his subject and
his precision.... he has filled a great gap in the history
of our literature and sciences, which have adorned
the Christian East for many centuries... 5

The widespread appeal of al-Lulu al-Manthur to East-
ern readers may readily be understood, for in approach
and method it closely resembles other Eastern scholarly
works on similar subjects. Especially, we may compare
the work of Barsoum with Jurji Zaydan’s four-volume
Kitab Tarikh Adab al-Lugha al-Arabiyya (The History of
Arabic Literature”: Cairo, 1911), and K. L. Istaijian’s
Tarikh al-Thaqafa wal-Adab al-Armani ( “History of Arme-
nian Culture and Literature”: Mosul, 1954).

Zaydan, observing that no Eastern writer before him
has undertaken such a task, seeks to relate the Arabs’
literature to their political history; to depict the growth

and decline of their sciences; to give biographies of the
leading figures of Arabic sciences and literature, to-
gether with pertinent bibliographical material; and to
categorize the books extantin Arabic according to their
subjects. While Zaydan presents his material largely
within a chronological framework, Barsoum focuses on
the types of Syriac literature, particularly compositions
of religious character. Yet both works draw extensively
on biographical material, and both are primarily ency-
clopedic in nature, though Zaydan’s is wider in scope.
In general, Zaydan’s straightforward style is more fluent
than that of Barsoum, whose syntax is sometimes in-
volved, and whose language is often metaphorical.
Istarjian seems in his history of Armenian literature to
have a purpose rather like that expressed by Barsoum in
the Introduction to al-Lulu al-Manthur. Like Barsoum,
Istarjian is intensely proud of the cultural traditions of
his people. The periods which the two men cover are
nearly identical, bu twhile Barsoum limits his discussion
to religious literature, Istaijian also deals with secular
literature, approaching his subject through a consider-
ation of literary genres. Istaijian too, however, is con-
cerned primarily with presenting biographical mate-
rial, and his work, like al-Lulu al-Manthur, is factual
rather than analytical.

Thus, the work of Patriarch Barsoum is wholly consis-
tent with the prevailing tradition of Eastern scholar-
ship. This is not to say, however, that Eastern scholars
concern themselves solely with the accumulation of
factual evidence. Indeed, an excellent contemporary
work by Anis al-Maqdisi, al-Iltijahat al-Adabiyya ft al-Alam
al-Arabi al-Hadith (“Literary Trends in the Modern Arab
World”: Beirut, 1963), shows their growing interest in
interpretive literary scholarship. Al-Maqdisi discusses
the Arabic literature of the twentieth century not in
terms of its types, but in terms of its political, social, and
aesthetic significance. From a Western viewpoint, it may
be argued that Barsoum writes in an unscholarly 'man-
ner. Perhaps we can more readily comprehend the
merits and defects of his work by comparing it with that
of Rubens Duval, La IJtterature Syriaque. Duval provides
a historical account of the origins, development, and
decline of Syriac literature, and adds brief biographical
sketches of the leading Syrian writers. He takes his
account only to the end of the thirteenth century, while
Barsoum offers much information on the writers from
that time to the present. Duval, by adopting a chrono-
logical approach, and by considering within the scope
of his work the literary activity of both Eastern and
Western Syrians, succeeds more fully in placing Syriac
literature in its historical context. Neither writer at-
tempts genuine criticism of Syriac literature; Duval
turns his attention to its subjects and external forms,
while Barsoum enumerates but does not evaluate the
works of Syrian writers. Finally, we may note, Duval
quotes at length, but carefully, from the work of earlier
scholars; Barsoum too frequently presents evidence

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

without identifying its source.

Thus, it is clear that the Western reader must accept
al-Lulu al-Manthur on its own terms, as the work of an
Eastern scholar writing for an Eastern audience. He
must also bear in mind that Barsoum is the Patriarch of
Antioch, the head of the Syrian Church, and that his
dominant attitude is one of pride in the literary achieve-
ments of the Church Fathers; indeed, this must be his
attitude if he is to fulfill his purpose.

To be sure, this pride often leads to undue exaggera-
tion, particularly of the ancientness of the Syrians’
language and the greatness of their literature. Barsoum
does not document convincingly his identification of
Syriac with Aramaic, nor does he furnish sufficient
proof that Christ and the Apostles spoke Syriac. His
dogmatic assertion that Syriac literature rivals that of
the Greeks seems all the more unpalatable because it is
made without reference to any clear standard of judg-
ment One finds it difficult to accept the statement t£iat
the Syriac books now extant are the oldestin the world,
and impossible to believe that the library of the monas-
tery of the Syrians in Egypt is the most ancient in the
world.

In other instances Barsoum gives us good reason to
call into question his reliability both as a scholar and as
ajudge of literature. His declaration that the Pshitto was
produced by Christianizedjews in the first century, for
example, may be sound, but surely needs substantia-
tion. In his discussion of early Syriac literature, he quite
erroneously assigns the composition of the Book of
Tobit to the fifth century B.C., and again offers no
evidence to support his contention. He praises St.
Ephraim at the expense of other importantwriters such
as Bar Daysan and Aphrahat. His treatment of the main
themes of Syriac poetry is somewhat marred by his
vague definition of satire. Finally, by centering his
discussion largely upon the Christian literature which
the Syrians produced, Barsoum minimizes the impor-
tance of their role as translators.

Despite these faults, the work of Patriarch Barsoum
has significant value for students of Syriac literature.
Unlike his Western predecessors, he does not depend
heavily on the work of Assemani, but draws much
information from the Syriac manuscripts surviving in
churches and monasteries throughout the Middle East,
and from other original sources. The wider range of
first-hand material available to Barsoum generally does
not lead him to conclusions at odds with those drawn by
Western scholars, but frequendy enriches his presenta-
tion of factual information. Wright, for example, in his
biographical sketch of Bar Hebraeus, cites only the
Bibliotheca Orientalis and Bar Hebraeus’ own writings;
Barsoum furnishes additional evidence from the metri-
cal biography of Bar Hebraeus and his brother, by
Gabriel of Bartulli.

The chief significance of al-Lulu al-Manthur, how-
ever, lies not in its additions to our knowledge concern-

ing major figures in Syriac literature, but in its treat-
ment of topics which Western writers have not consid-
ered. Barsoum has given us here a diorough and illumi-
nating exposition of the art of calligraphy. His discus-
sion of the rites of the Church takes us into an area
which has not been explored in other studies of Syriac
literature. The consideration of the various types of
church music gives us an all too brief insight into what
may quite properly be regarded as one of the highest
forms of literary expression sought by the Syrians. This
part of the work is clearly derived in part from ancient
sources, about which Barsoum is unfortunately not
explicit. The informative discussion of Syriac liturgies
appears to be original rather than derivative; Barsoum
indicates in this section that he has read both Renaudot
and Michael the Great, but because of his life in the
Church he is thoroughly familiar with the practice of
the liturgy, and in fact has even read seventy four of
these liturgies himself. His catalogue of liturgies is far
more extensive than any compiled by Western scholars;
to Philoxenus of Mabug, for example, he attributes
certainly two liturgies, and tentatively another, whereas
Wright 4 cites only one, and that on the authority of
Renaudot and Assemani.

The second part of the book, comprising biogra-
phies of Syrian writers, should be of great historical and
literary importance to both general readers and Syrian
scholars. Many of these biographies, particularly those
covering the period after the tenth century A.D., are
little known to Western scholars, and even those known
to scholars have not been put in proper historical
perspective. These biographies contain much indis-
pensable information for writers concerned with the
history of the Syrian Church during this period.

Because of his ecclesiastical position, the author had
exceptional opportunities to gather important and hith-
erto little known information for these biographies
from various Syriac prayer books, lectionaries, liturgical
books, and Gospels in Syrian churches throughout the
East, particularly in Tur Abdin. He was also able to
discover manuscripts unknown to other Orientalists,
who were compelled to rely on those available in West-
ern libraries. In 1927, for example, F. S. Marsh trans-
lated and published The Book of the Holy Hierotheos from
three manuscripts, two in the British Museum and one
in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. But he
wasunaware of another copy in the Monastery of Zafaran,
MS. 213, which Barsoum tells us includes Patriarch
Theodosius’ detailed commentary on the text.

Moreover, Barsoum’s profound knowledge of and
feeling for the Syriac language placed him in a supreme
position to judge the lapses and prejudicial observa-
tions of some Orientalists against the Syrian Church
and its learned men. Yet he freely gave his opinions and
judgments regarding Syriac literature and sciences to
scholars who sought them , and he must be commended
for the invaluable assistance he rendered many Western

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

scholars, among them J. B. Chabot, in locating, photo-
graphing, and providing Syriac texts of manuscripts.

The reader’s attention should be drawn to some
editorial revisions and reorganizations made in the
original text The errata which the author appended at
the end of Part One have been corrected in the transla-
tion. The section on the Diatessaron has been moved
from the end of the book to its proper place as Chapter
Eleven (hence the difference in the numbering of
chapters between the original text and the translation).
Similarly the biography of Dionysius Saliba, bishop of
Claudia, has been moved to its proper place in PartTwo
(hence the difference in the numbering of biogra-
phies) . This editor has deleted names of Orientalists at
the end of Section One of the-Epilogue, as these have no
significance to the text. Likewise, the list of foreign
words and usages comprising Section Four of the Epi-
logue has been deleted, because these terms have been
translated and explained as they occurred throughout
the text. In Section Five of the Epilogue, this editor has
placed in separate lists geographical names, followed by
the names of monasteries; in the original text these
were commingled in a single list.

The reader should be informed that the manuscripts
cited by Barsoum as MSS. Boston are now at the
Houghton Library of Harvard University. He should
also note that when the author refers to manuscripts
deposited at “Our Library,” he means the Patriarchal
Library, which in his lifetime was located at Hims, but
which is now at Damascus, the seat of the present
Patriarch. Finally, in the biographical section, some of
the dates cited by the author after the names of Syrian
learned men signify not the year of their death, but
some outstanding deed by the individual mentioned, or
perhaps merely the fact that he was still living in that
year.

The late Mar Philoxenus Yuhanna (John) Dolabani,
bishop of Mardin and its environs (d. November 2,
1969), published a Syriac translation of al-Lulu al-
Manthur (Qamishli, Syria: 1967). To this translation
Bishop Dolabani added a few new biographies, and he
included new information in some of the biographies
written by Barsoum. But there is little in Bishop
Dolabani’s translation which merits inclusion here.

Western writers seem accustomed to remark dispar-
agingly that the Syrians devoted themselves largely to
the writing of Christian literature, and to pass over this
literature rather quickly; as a consequence, their view of
Syriac literature is incomplete. Yet it is equally true that
al-Lulu al-Manthur, on account of its preoccupation
with the Christian writings, gives an inaccurate view of
the whole of Syriac literature. Those who wish general
knowledge of the Syriac language and literature will no

doubt profit most from the treatments of these subjects
by Duval and Baumstark. Those who seek more detailed
information will find the work of Patriarch Barsoum of
immeasurable importance.

The book should be of great interest to students of
Syriac literature and of common readers interested in
the history of the Syrian Church and its religious and
literary traditions. Furthermore, it contains informa-
tion about the interaction of the early Arab Muslims
with their subjects the Syrian Christians and the role
these Syrians played in transmitting Greek philosophy
to the Arabs. Of great significance to the students of
peripatetic philosophy is the importance the Syrians
placed on the works of Aristotle. Indeed, without Syrian
translators the Muslims would not have known Aristotle
whom they reverently described as the First Master.

The present work would not have been possible
without the invaluable assistance of my colleague and
friend Professor George Welch, Jr. for correcting the
manuscript and offering many suggestions concerning
Latin and Greek terms used in the text, and to the late
eminent Orientalist Professor D. M. Dunlop (d. 1987)
of Columba University, for reading the first part of the
book, which was presented to him as part of the editor's
doctoral dissertation. I would like also to thank Abd al-
Ahad Hannawi for typing the final copy of the manu-
script, andjohn Eulaiano, Inter-Libray Loan Coordina-
tor of the Library of Gannon University, for his indefati-
gable effort and patience in locating the names of
Western writers and the tides of their works on Syriac
literature. I should mention with gratitude the effort
and patience of my late sister Fadila Moosa, a grammar-
ian and philologist, who helped in explaining the in-
trinsic meaning of many involved Arabic passages in the
original text. The editor also appreciates the great
interest of Don Herdeck in this book and in producing
it in its final form. He also commends Dr. Admer
Gouryh for his incentive in pressing forward the publi-
cation of this book, and Hanna Isa for his assistance.
Finally, the editor would like to thank the dignitaries
and foundations for their support. Of these it is worthy
to men tion Archbishop Mar Cyril Aphrem Karim, Head
of the Syrian Orthodox Archdiocese of the Eastern
United States, The American Foundation for Syriac
Studies, Samir, Lyla and Gabriel Shirazi of the Shirazi
Foundation, Archbishop Yeshu Samuel Trust Fund,
The Very Rev. Numan Aydin, Mr. Sulayman Abd al-
Nur, Mr. Said Samuel and the editor’s sister Adeeba
Moosa.

Last but not least, the editor is indebted to his wife
for her exemplary patience and understanding during
the whole process of translating and preparing this
book for the press.

Author's Preface

Praise be to God, who has adorned the intellect of
man with the crown of knowledge, and embellished his
speech with the charm of eloquence. The dawn of our
epoch was ushered by the appearance of interesting
works dealing with the history of sciences and litera-
tures in various languages. The field of knowledge
extended far and wide before the knights (stalwart
champions) of eloquence, who went forth on their
valiant adventures, each setting his eyes upon his par-
ticular goal. While some achieved their objective, oth-
ers continued the search. Thus, they helped to re-
awaken the spirits and rouse the minds from the state of
slumber and lethargy that had enveloped them for far
too long a time. Presently, the noble souls were eagerly
seeking the pure springs of knowledge, and the lumi-
nous minds were setting with determination for the rich
realms of literature.

Since Western scholars had drawn only an incom-
plete picture of Syriac Sciences and Literature, these
seemed, by the very nature of their (sad) state, to be
calling for a fair historical exposition, in the Arabic
language, that would give them the publicity they de-
served in the Eastern world, and reveal their merits to all
those endowed with sound reason and understanding.

Therefore, we undertook to compile this detailed
work, which covers eighteen centuries of the history of
Syriac Sciences and Literature.

It took more than thirty years to carry out the exten-
sive research needed for this study; the necessary mate-
rial was sought in the most likely and unlikely sources,
the bulk of them being manuscripts scattered by the
vicissitudes of fate all over the world (in the four corners
of the world) and, apart from scanty references to them
in historical works, all but neglected by scholars and
compilers.

If we leave aside the biographies of thirty famous
scholars and prominent ascetics, we find that the Syr-
ians, unlike the Arabs, left no work dealing with the
history of their learned men either in outline or in
detail.

During the period in question, all the time we could
spare from our episcopal and patriarchal work was
devoted to this task, until God Almighty (may he be
exalted) helped us achieve this task.

We were undeterred by the great pains and the
assiduous efforts we had to exert by day and by night, or
by the substantial sums of money we voluntarily contrib-

uted for this purpose. Nay, all this was a cause of
pleasure and delight. We were only trying to give their
due to worthy ancestors who had crowned our nation
and our language with laurels of splendor; who had left
for us, both in the Eastand West, an immortal name and
a noble glory; and who had enriched our minds with
true knowledge, thereby bestowing upon us the gift of
fluent speech and clear expression. Meanwhile, we
propose to spread out before the scholars and students
of the East and West a (sumptuous) table on which we
hope they will find what should delight the heart and
give satisfaction to the mind. We also hope that this
work will help to fill a gap in the history of an (impor-
tant) Semitic language that has long clothed the Chris-
tian East with a beautiful garment, rendering to it such
services as had been gratefully recognized by all fair-
minded scholars, who well know thatits sister languages
vainly seek to (rival) the sweetness of its fruits.

To accomplish our task, we have had to make exten-
sive travels. In addition to Mosul and its surrounding
villages, we have visited the Monastery of St. Matthew
(Dayr Mar Matta) ; Jazirat ibn Umar; Tur Abdin (with its
forty five localities rich in Syriac lore, especially Basibrina,
Mardin and its villages, al-Zafaran Monastery, Diyarbakr
and its villages, and Wayranshahr; al-Ruha (Edessa);
Aleppo, Hama, Hims and their villages; Damascus and
Beirut; as well as the Monastery of St. Mark and the
Armenian and Greek Monasteries in Jerusalem. We
have also made various trips to Egypt, and
Constantinople, London, Oxford, Cambridge, Birming-
ham, Paris, Florence, Rome, Berlin, New York and
Boston.

We have consulted several manuscripts found in
private collections and, for a period of time, worked on
compiling extensive catalogues of our more famous
Syriac libraries. As for (the collections of) the Monas-
tery of St. Cyriacus, Beshayriyya, Kharput, Hisn Mansur,
Swayrik, Seert, Sharwan, Gharzan, Mount Sinai, and the
Library of the Coptic Patriarchate in Cairo, we were
helped to have access to them through the good offices
of certain high-minded clerics, to all of whom we now
express our deepest gratitude.

We have also consulted the printed catalogues of
Eastern and Western Syriac libraries.

Apart from the Holy Scriptures, we have examined
some two hundred different volumes, covering a wide
range of arts and sciences. Thus, no work is described or
criticized here without having been the subject of the
closest scrutiny, with the exception of a few rare in-
stances. In fact, we have had access to all the known
locations of Syriac documents.

Among other works, we have consulted the Bibliotheca
Orientalis of Assemani, the four histories - some fairly
comprehensive, some brief - of William Wright (in
English), Rubens Duval (in French), A. Baumstark (in
German), and J. B. Chabot (1894-1938) (in French).
While the best of these works is Duval’s, Baumstark’s is

Xll

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

more thorough and richer in reference material. The
main objective of these authors is to acquaint the com-
munity of Orientalists with the source-references of
Syriac literature which, according to their conception,
includes sciences and literature in general. They are less
adequate in their description and critique of the creativ-
ity of the Syriac intellect Besides, they all carry their
studies, which cover both the Western and Eastern
(Schools) of Syriac Literature, no further than the
thirteenth century, with the exception of Baumstark,
who makes a few references to more modem writers as
well as to a number of Malkite and Maronite manu-
scripts.

The present work is confined to discussing our West-
ern Syrian men of letters and scholars, to the exclusion
of the Eastern (followers of the Eastern rite, i.e., the
Nestorians) and the meager literary output of the
Malkites and Maronites.

You will find in this book some of the subjects and
studies overlooked by the above-mentioned historians
of literature, including calligraphy, verse, ecclesiastical
rites with all their characteristic diversity and complex-
ity. Itreviews the history of literature from 1 290 until the
present time, and gives brief geographical accounts of
all the localities cited, as well as precise historical infor-
mation on seventy-two monasteries. In addition, it con-
tains lists of schools, ancient Syriac libraries (book
collections) , physicians, authors of liturgies and Sedras

(Husoyos) , calligraphers, as well as a number of lost
(unknown) manuscripts, and various useful items of
historical information.

An attempt is made to rectify a number of errors
thoughtlessly copied from each other by contemporary
writers, while making sure to remain throughout, within
the strict bounds of judicious criticism.

In a separate chapter, the reader will find a summary
of the work done by distinguished orientalists who have
rendered valuable services to Syriac Studies. Some of
them, however, are taken to task for a pitiful lack of
moderation and propagandists prejudices contrary to
the scientific spirit and the worth of scientific achieve-
ment

The book is published under the title, Al-Lulu al-
Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum wa-Adab al-Suryaniyya.

May it find acceptance in the eyes of God Almighty as
a service to science and to the seekers after knowledge;
surely God is a sufficient Guide and Helper.

At our Patriarchate in Hims, Syria,

14 February, 1943 A.D. corresponding to the 11th
year of our Patriarchate, and the anniversary of our
Episcopal Silver Jubilee.

xiii

Contents

Author’ s Dedication v

Translator’s Dedication v

Translator’s Introduction vii

Author’s Preface xii

PART I: On Syriac Sciences and Literature

CHAPTER ONE The Syriac Language 1

CHAPTER TWO The General Characteristics of

Syriac Literature 1

CHAPTER THREE The Centers of Learning 2

CHAPTER FOUR Syrian Libraries 3

CHAPTER FIVE Syriac Calligraphy 5

CHAPTER SIX Morphology and Grammar 7

CHAPTER SEVEN General Rules of the Language and Dictionaries; 8

Rhetoric and Poetry 8

CHAPTER EIGHT Themes of Syriac Poetry 9

CHAPTER NINE Categories of Syrian Poets 10

CHAPTER TEN Versions of The Holy Bible 12

CHAPTER ELEVEN The Diatessaron 12

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

CHAPTER TWELVE Syriac Orthography 13

CHAPTER THIRTEEN Commentaries On The Old and New Testaments 14

CHAPTER FOURTEEN Apocryphal Writings 15

CHAPTER FIFTEEN Semi-Apocryphal Literature 16

CHAPTER SIXTEEN Church Rituals 16

Church Music 17

The Regular Weekday Service Book 17

Lectionaries 18

Liturgical Books 19

Service Books For Sundays For The Whole Year 22

The Service Book of Principal Feasts and 23

The Festivals of Saints 23

Service Books of The Lent and Passion Week 24

Husoys (Propitiatory Prayers) For Sundays, Feasts, Lent and Passion Week, and

Other Occasions 24

The Orders of Baptism, The Benediction of Marriage, The Holy Unction and of

Repentence 27

Order of The Offices of Ordination and The Administration of Sacraments

by The Clergy 27

Service Book For Principal Feasts 28

Funeral Service Books 29

Choral Books 30

Prayer Books of Priests and Monks 32

The Book of Life 32

Calendar of Festivals For The Whole Year 32

The Oldest Manuscript on Which We Depended in Our Research 34

I. TheFanqiths 34

I I. The Husoyos ( Propitiatory Prayers) 36

III. Baptism, the Benediction of Marriage, Prayers for the Sick, and

Repentance 38

TV. The Office of Ordination 39

V. Service Books of Hymns For Principal Feasts 40

VI. Funeral Services 40

VII Madrashes and Maaniths 41

VIII. The Beth Gaz ( Treasure of Melodies) 42

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Theology 44

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN The Pseudo-Work of Dionysius The Areopagite 44

CHAPTER NINETEEN Ecclesiastical Apologetics 47

xvi

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

CHAPTER TWENTY Ecclesisastical Jurisprudence and Civil Law 47

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE Ascetic Books 48

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO Books of General History 50

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Private History 52

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR Diverse Historical Tracts 53

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE The Lives of Martyrs and Saints 55

The Lives of the Martyrs ofEdessa, Samosata and Persia 56

Life-Stories of The Martyrs of Palestine, Mesopotamia,

Armenia, Byzantium, Egypt and Yemen 57

The Life-Stories of The Holy Apostles, Patriarchs and

Bishops 58

The Life-Stories of Ascetics, Anchorites and Others 59

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX On Story Writing 61

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN Philosophy 61

SECTION ONE The Philosophical Writings of The Syrians in General 62

SECTION TWO The Influence of Aristotelian Philosophy on The Syrians 62

SECTION THREE Other Syriac Translations From Greek 63

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT The Science of Medicine 64

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE On Natural Science 65

CHAPTER THIRTY The Science of Astronomy

(Al-Haya, The Form, i.e., of The Heavens);

Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry 65

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE The Translation of Foreign Works 66

SECTION ONE The Translated Works Until 400 A.D 67

SECTION TWO The Translations Until The Year 451 69

SECTION THREE The Rest of The Translated Writings From The Year 451

and After 71

SECTION FOUR Translations of Greek Writings of Orthodox Origin Not

Known to Us 72

XVII

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

PART TWO: Biographies of Syrian Scholars and Writers

Foreword 75

Table of Concise Biographies of Scholars Divided

Into Three Periods 75

THE FIRST PERIOD: B.C. to 758 A.D 75

THE SECOND PERIOD: 773 - 1286 75

THE THIRD PERIOD: 1290-1931 76

CHAPTER ONE Biographies of Scholars and Writers of the

First Period 76

CHAPTER TWO Biographies of Scholars and Writers of the Second

Period 121

CHAPTER THREE Biographies of Learned Men and Writers of the

Third Period 1290-1931 159

Epilogue in Five Parts

Part I: On Orientalists and Oriental Writers who Published Syriac Books „ 173

Part II: On The Incoherence of Some Orientalists and Their False Charges Against Our
Learned Men and Their Refutation 173

Section III: A Table of Famous Calligraphers 177

The Fifth Century 177

The Sixth Century 177

The Seventh Century 177

The Eighth Century 177

The Ninth Century 177

The Tenth Century 177

The Eleventh Century 178

The Twelfth Century 178

The Thirteenth Century 179

The Fourteenth Century 179

The Fifteenth Century 180

The Sixteenth Century 181

The Seventeenth Century 181

The Eighteenth Century 181

The Nineteenth Century 181

Section V : Geographical Names 183

Monasteries 187

Notes 191

Index 237

Bibliography 000

xviii

PARTI

On Syriac Sciences and
Literature

CHAPTER ONE
The Syriac Language

The Aramaic (Syriac) language is one of the Semitic
tongues in which parts of the Holy Bible, such as the
Prophecy of Daniel and the Gospel according to St.
Matthew, were revealed. 1 Some scholars consider it the
most ancient of the languages of the world; even the
more moderate ones consider it one of the oldest. 2 The
first established evidence of its ancient use is the passage
in Genesis 37:47 about 1750 B.C. 3 The Syriac language
consists of twenty-two letters, six of which have double
sounds, hard and soft, 4 which according to our termi-
nology, are identified by certain signs.

Syriac is a graceful and rich language. It is adequate
for the expression of ideas and portrayal of feelings,
besides the comprehension of all types of ancient knowl-
edge. Syriac was the vernacular of the inhabitants of
Iraq, thejazira of Mesopotamia and Syria. It penetrated
into inner Persia and spread among the peoples
neighbouring the Syrians. 5 For many years it remained
the official language of the states which occupied the
Near East. It also extended to Egypt, Asia Minor and
northern Arabia, 6 and reached southern China and the
Malabar coast in India, where it is still used. It was still
widely spoken until rivalled by Arabic at the end of the
eighth and the beginning of the ninth century, atwhich
time it retreated from the towns and found refuge in the
villages and mountains. Itwas, nevertheless, still used by
writers and scholars.

The homeland of the classical Syriac included al-
Ruha (Edessa), Harran, Hims, Apamea and the rest of
the country of al-Sham. 7 The Sabeans of Harran used it
in their writings until the end of the ninth century. 8 The
language also remained in this high state in many parts
of thejazira and Armenia until the end of the thirteenth
century, and in some other places until the fifteenth
century. This language may rightfully be considered
superior to other languages of the world, as it was the
spoken language of Our Lord Jesus Christ and his Holy

Apostles. Itwas the first language in which the Christian
Church celebrated the liturgy. Furthermore, the Syr-
ians had great excellence in translating Greek writings
into Syriac and in turn into Arabic. It has also become
our ritual language to this day and, to a small extent, the
means of communication among our clergy.

At the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Syriac was
divided according to its pronunciation and script into
two dialects, known as the Western and the Eastern
“traditions”. Each of these traditions was attributed to
the homeland of the people who spoke it, i.e., Western
for those who inhabited al-Sham, and Eastern for those
living in Mesopotamia, Iraq and Azerbayjan. However,
the Syrian Orthodox community in Iraq is excluded
from the Eastern part.

The most important writings in this language which
reached us are the Old Testament and the New Testa-
ment in the Pshitto translation. If we except some of the
changes in the dialects into which it was subdivided,
Syriac did not undergo change after it became settled.
The Old Testament passages in this language and what
remains of the poetry of the philosopher “Wafa” indi-
cate that this language is the same that we use today.
However, some of its terminology was forgotten through
time and became unattractive to some, as observed by
Anton of Takrit. 9 On the other hand, others were lost
through negligence, but were preserved in Arabic, as
has been asserted by Jacob of Bartulli. 10

Syriac had neither grammar nor philological books,
because the native Syrians spoke it with instinctive
eloquence as the Arabs spoke their tongue. The first
grammatical rules for Syriac were set at the end of the
seventh century, as shall be seen later.

CHAPTER TWO
The General Characteristics of
Syriac Literature

In the beginning, the Syrian-Aramaeans had a re-
fined language adorned with literature comprising both
prose and poetry. They were also concerned with the
sciences. However, nothing of their literary works has
reached us except the book of Ahiqar, the Minister of
Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 681 B.C. This book, to
which many other tales were added later, contains
counsel and wisdom. 1 It is presumed that the book of
Ahiqar was composed either at this time or about the
fifth century B.C., when the book ofTobiyya (Tobit) was

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

written. 2 There survived also a few lines of poetry by
Wafa, the Aramaean philosopher and poet who lived
long before the Christian era, together with a few
legends inscribed on the tombs of some of the Abgarite
kings of Edessa. To these should be added the fine and
edifying letter of the philosopher Mara bar Saraphion
to his son, written in the middle of the second century
A.D. However, these surviving sources are too insignifi-
cant to be taken as a basis for evaluating pre-Christian
Syriac literature.

The Syriac literature known to us, therefore, is of
Christian and ecclesiastical origin. It is the intellectual
product of Christian clerical authors and learned men.
When embracing Christianity, our forefathers, inflamed
by their ardent zeal for the new faith, burned all books
and destroyed every trace of pagan scholarly works, lest
they entice their posterity back into the snares of hea-
thenism. When most of their progeny embraced Chris-
tianity in the first and second centuries; followed by the
rest at the close of the fourth century and the beginning
of the fifth, they pursued the path of their forefathers in
their love for learning. They mastered the art of litera-
ture and produced magnificent literary masterpieces.

The Syrian scholars exerted their efforts in translat-
ing, punctuating and commenting on the Holy Bible.
They concentrated their attention on the philological
sciencessuch as morphology, grammar, rhetoric, speech
and poetry. They also pursued logic, philosophy, natu-
ral science, mathematics, astronomy, geodesy and medi-
cine. They immersed themselves deeply in theoretical
theology, ethics, and ecclesiastical and civil jurispru-
dence. They dealt at great length with civil and religious
history and church music and touched also upon geog-
raphy and the art of storytelling. In general, they cov-
ered the commonly known fields of human learning
without exception.

Among the Syrians flourished many savants and
scholars who carried the torches of knowledge to the
utmost parts of the Eastern world. They surpassed the
learned men of most Christian nations in number as
well as in output; their fame, as we shall see later, spread
east and west. The Greek literary works, despite their
abundance, excellence and precedence, and despite
their being a model for Syriac and Latin literature,
nevertheless, taken as a whole, did not excel over Syriac
literature in its entirety. Despite the disparity between
the Coptic, Armenian, Christian-Arabic, Georgian and
Abyssinian literatures, meticulous scholars are aware of
the limitations and narrow scope of these literatures. If
the Greek culture is considered philosophical and that
of the Arabs rhetorical, then the culture of the Syrians
is considered religious.

The characteristics of the Syriac literature, there-
fore, are Biblical, ritualistic, polemical, theological,
historical and traditional. The Syrians’ concern with
producing translations and commen taries on the Scrip
ture, as well as other related writings, speaks for their

excellence in preserving and spreading the Holy Scrip
tures. Moreover, the books of religious services and
prayers which they composed over many generations
testify to their superior taste, high-mindedness and pre-
eminence in the theological disputes which long en-
dured among the Christian sects.

Their deep penetration into the secrets of Christian-
ity yielded many theological and polemical workswhich
reveal their literary ability. Their histories encompassed
the episodes of Christianity and the life stories of saints
and martyrs, as well as the most accurate historical
documents of Asia in the time of the Romans, Persians,
Byzantines, Arabs, Mongolsand Turks. When the fourth
century swelled with the writings of the Christian schol-
ars who wrote in Greek, the school of Edessa spared no
effort in translating the best of these writings into its
language. The School of Edessa also initiated the teach-
ing of Greek and was followed by most of our well-
known schools until the end of the twelfth century.

On the other hand, the Syrian scholars devoted their
efforts to translating the books of philosophy and sci-
ence first into Syriac and then into Arabic, thus becom-
ing the teachers of the Arabs.

In time matters took a different course, however, and
the Greek philosophy was transmitted from the East to
Europe through Arabic books of science whose influ-
ence began to appear in Spain in the Middle Ages. 3

CHAPTER THREE
The Centers of Learning

The luminaries of Syrian culture, both the ones of
the first class and those of the second, shone in the long
period between the fourth century and the end of the
thirteenth. The centers of learning were on the whole
theological, although some of them were distinguished
for the teaching of philosophy and other sciences. The
most famous of these schools were the following:

1. The theological school of Edessa, which most likely
was established in the middle of the third century, but
flourished and became very popular in 363 A.D. through
the care of Saint Ephraim, the Syrian. It was closed down
in 489 A. D. after it had survived for 1 26 years. 1

2. The Monastery of Zuqnin, known as St John’s
Monastery, was established in the fourth century near
Diyarbakr. It became a center of learning in the middle
of the same century and existed until the tenth century.
It had skillful teachers on its staff.

3. Dayr al-Umr, or Qartamin, properly known as the
Monastery of St. Gabriel, in Tur Abdin. It was estab-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

lished in 397 and became the goal of the seekers of
knowledge and asceticism from the middle of the fifth
century onwards. Scholars continued graduating from
it until the eleventh or twelfth century.

4. The Monastery of Ousebuna in the province of
Antioch.

5. The great Monastery of Talada, near Ousebuna.
These two monasteries were established in the middle
of the fourth century, when they became centers of
learning. They achieved more fame, however, in the last
decade of the seventh century, through the excellence
of Jacob of Edessa. Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa,
also taught in Talada shordy before 837 A.D. Both
monasteries were still populated in the middle, or
possibly the end of the tenth century.

6. the Monastery of Mar Zakka, near al-Raqqa
(Callinicus), established in the fifth century. Teaching
did not start there, however, until the beginning of the
sixth century, and it remained until the tenth century.

7. Qinnesrin (The Eagle’s Nest) stands on the right
bank of the Euphrates opposite what is now Jarabulus.
Established around 530, it indulged more actively in
learning than the rest of the monasteries and thus
achieved a wide fame. It remained the greatest school of
theology and science until the beginning of the ninth
century. Then, however, it suffered a period of decline,
but was soon revived until the middle of the eleventh
century and was probably maintained to the middle of
the thirteenth.

8. The outer Jubb Monastery (Gubba Baraya), be-
tween Aleppo and Samosata, which became known in
the sixth century, but achieved broader fame in the
ninth century.

9. The Monastery of Mar Matta, east of Mosul, built
in the mountain of Alphaph (the thousands), estab-
lished in the late fourth century. Teaching did not
begin in it before the third decade of the seventh
century and remained until the end of the thirteenth
century.

10. Al-Amud (the Pillar) Monastery, near Ras al-Ayn
in aljazira, the center of study from the seventh to the
ninth centuries.

11. The Monastery of Qarqafta (the Skull), between
Ras al-Ayn and Hasaka near the village of Magdal, was
famous for philological studies in the beginning of the
ninth century.

12. The Monastery of Mar Hananya, properly known
as Dayr al-Zafaran, near Mardin. Built in the last decade
of the ninth century, it became the center of learning
for a long time. After a period of decline, teaching was
resumed there in later times, though in a primitive
method.

13. The Monastery of Mar Sergius, in the Qahil
(barren) mountain between Sinjar and Balad. Learn-
ing is presumed to have begun in it in the eighth
century; however, it became famous in the ninth cen-
tury.

1 4. The Sacred Mountain of al-Ruha (Edessa) , which
was crowded with monasteries from the fifth and sixth
centuries onwards. Some of these monasteries existed
as centers of learning up to the beginning of the
thirteenth century.

15. The Monastery of Mar Barsoum, near Melitene.
Built in the middle of the fifth century, it was a center of
learning from the ninth century to the middle of the
fourteenth.

16. The Monastery of Mar John Qurdis, in the city of
Dara, a great and well-known monastery. We have its
history from 800 to 1002. Among its scholars was the
Metropolitan Lazarus bar Sobto.

17. The Monastery of Elijah barjaji in the province
of Melitene, which was established around 960 and
became a center of studies.

18. Al-Barid Monastery, in the province of Melitene
and Anazete; builtin 969, it became a center of learning
until 1243. The Turkomans killed fifteen of its monks,
most of whom were men of learning.

19. The Monastery of Sarjisiyya, in the same prov-
ince, founded about 980, when it began to breathe the
perfume of knowledge. This monastery and that of al-
Barid remained as centers of knowledge to the twelfth
century.

20. The Cathedral of the City of Melitene, known as
the Church of al-Sa’i, a center of religion and philologi-
cal studies in the beginning of the eleventh century. Its
importance declined at the end of the thirteenth cen-
tury.

21. The Monastery of Mar Aaron al-Shaghr, in
Qallisura, an ancient monastery, presumably established
in the fifth century. It became a center of learning in the
eleventh century; from it graduated Ignatius III, Metro-
politan of Melitene.

We have overlooked mentioning the patriarchal and
episcopal seats, in which great numbers of the clergy
were educated. ,

CHAPTER FOUR
Syrian Libraries

Following are the most famous Syrian libraries known
to us:

1. The library of the Monastery of Qartamin. This
library contained many books, to which mar Simon
Zaytuni (d. 734) added one hundred and eighty vol-
umes. 1 Following his steps, his nephew David and then
John, the metropolitan of Qartamin ’s Monastery (998-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1034), as well as his nephew, the monk Immanuel,
adorned it with seventy volumes of parchments written
in his own hand. In 1169 two monks, Gabriel bar Batriq
and his brother Elisha, togetherwith Moses of Kafr Salt,
restored two hundred and seventy volumes. 2

2. The library of Zuqnin Monastery. This contained
many valuable books, as has been mentioned in the life
story of Matta the ascetic.

3. The library of the Church of Amid. Mar Mari III,
metropolitan of Amid, collected significant volumes
which were moved to Amid after his death in 5 29. 5

4. The library of Talada’s Monastery. Some of its
books are preserved in the British Museum numbering
740 books, including the selected hymns of Mar Isaac,
transcribed about 570. The monks of this monastery
took possession of the books ofjacob of Edessa after his
death in 708.

5. The library of Mar Dawud (David) Monastery. We
had two monasteries of this name, one situated south of
Damascus near Busra, also called the Monastery of
Hina, the second, in the city of Qinnesrin, mentioned in
the second half of the sixth century. Both monasteries
are mentioned in the Syriac Document# (pp. 164, 171
and 440). The library in question belongs to one of
them. Among its books, it contained the book of
Philalethes, by St. Severus of Antioch, finished in the time
of its Abbot Daniel in the sixth or the seventh century.
This work is preserved in the Vatican Library (MS. 139) .

6. The library of St John’s Monastery in Beth Zaghba,
mentioned three times in the Syriac Documents (pp. 163,
171 and 182) in the time of Paul the Abbot Of its books
only an old copy of the New Testament, written in 586,
survives, at the Bibliotheca Laurenziana.

7. The library of St. John of Nayrab, believed to be
one of the monasteries near Aleppo. One of its volumes,
in the British Museum (MS. 730), contains the letters
and discourses of Mar Philoxenus of Mabug; their
transcription was finished in 569.

8. The library of St. Moses in al-Nabk’s mountain.
British Museum MS. 585 contains the lastvolume of the
writings ofjohn Chrysostom, finished in the middle of
the sixth century.

9. The library of Mar Daniel in Kafrbil, in the prov-
ince of Antioch; the transcription of its works, done by
a priest named Musa (Moses) in 599, is preserved in the
British Museum (MS 71).

1 0. The library of Mar Cyriacus near Tall al-Maqlub.
Of its manuscripts only three survived, two in the British
Museum (MSS. 52 and 53), transcribed in 616 and 617,
and the third in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris,
MS. 72, finished in 720.

11. The library of al-Amud’s Monastery, mentioned
in 638 in the Book of theMaymars (Hymns) of Marjacob
ofSaruj, in the time of Abbot Simon. Its contents survive
in the Vatican (MS. 251).

12. The library of the Monastery of Mar Matta. Its
manuscripts were increased in the seventh century.

particularly the valuable ones which gained fame around
the year 800. One of these manuscripts contained the
Book of the Six Days, written in 822 byjacob of Edessa, now
extant at the Chaldean library in Mosul, transferred
from the library at Diyarbakr. In 1 298 this library con-
tained the complete writings of Bar Hebraeus, as is
mentioned in the Berlin MS. 326. But it was pillaged by
the Kurds in the middle of the fourteenth century. Only
a portion of it remained in the middle of the sixteenth
century, and its contents were again scattered in 1845;
after that date it possessed only about sixty manuscripts.

13. The library of the Monastery of the Syrians in
Egypt. This monastery, which became widely famous in
the seventh century, harbored a library to which its
Abbot Father, Moses of Nisibin (907-944), added two
hundred and fifty of the most valuable books and the
rarest and oldest manuscripts after his trip from Egypt
to Baghdad, which took six years and ended in 932.
Among those who took care of the arrangements of this
library and the binding of its books was the eminently
learned monk Barsoum of Marash, some time after
1084. Barsoum was still living as a priest in 1122 (cf.
British Museum MS. 323, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS.
27). I have read in some commentaries that fifteen
camel-loads of books were found in this monastery after
the pillage of Edessa, Amid, Melitene and other cities.
In 1624 the priest Tuma (Thomas) of Mardin counted
the books of this Monastery, which amounted to four
hundred and three volumes (cf. British Museum MS.
374). So this was the most famous of all the Syrian
libraries, as well as the most ancient of the libraries of
the world. 5 From the middle of the seventeenth century
to the middle of the nineteenth, its books found their
way into the libraries of the Vatican, Paris, Petersburg,
and especially London, which was enriched by these
books and so vaunted its stock of Syriac manuscripts
over that of the other libraries. 6 Also, there was a library
of Syriac books in the Monastery of Anba Bula, men-
tioned after the time when Constantine I was the Abbot
of Dayr al-Suryan in the eleventh century (cf.,book of
Isaac of Nineveh, British Museum MS. 695).

14. The library of the Monastery of Aspholis in Ras al-
Ayn, to which Constantine, the bishop of this monas-
tery, as well as the city of Mardin, donated books in the
year 724 (British Museum MS. 24).

15. The library of the Monastery of Mar Barsoum,
collected after the monastery became a patriarchal seat
at the end of the eighth century. Athanasius VI (1129),
a collector of the most valuable books, used to carry with
him loads of them wherever he travelled. Michael the
Great adorned this library with his numerous and mag-
nificent manuscripts. Further, Joseph of Amid, metro-
politan of Hims, mentioned in the Lives of Saints, which
he finished in 1196, that this library lacked nothing
except this book (British Museum MS. 960).

16. The library of the Monastery of Atanos; this
monastery was established by Athanasius al-Naal (the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

cobbler) , metropolitan of Miyafarqin, near Tallbsam in
the province of Ras al-Ayn in the middle of the eighth
century. This monastery produced fifteen bishops from
740 to 1 042. A certain Anastas has been mentioned as its
librarian (British Museum MS. 943) .

1 7. The Library of the Monastery of St. J ohn Qurdis, in
the city of Dara. To this library Lazarus, bishop of
Baghdad, donated the book attributed to Dionysius the
Areopagite, shortly after the year 824 (British Museum
MS. 625).

18. The library of Mar Hananya (known as Dayr al-
Zafaran) Monastery, situated east of Mardin. Its books
were collected by Mar Hananya, metropolitan of Mardin
in the last decade of the eighth century. It was renewed
and reorganized by Yuhanna (|ohn), bishop of Mardin
(d. 1165). After the Monastery became a patriarchal
seat, its books were increased to over three hundred in
number.

19. The library of the Monastery of Barjaji. Since its
establishment the Anba Yuhanna, disciple of Marun,
undertook to have many of its books transcribed by
skillful scribes and monks, and thus enriched this li-
brary from 990 onwards.

20. The library of the Cathedral of Melitene. To this
libraryjohn X, Bar Shushan (d. 1072), added his valu-
able manuscripts.

21. The library of St. Mark’s Monastery, known as
Dayr al-Suryan, injerusalem. Its books were collected at
the end of the fifteenth century. A good number of
them are remnants of the library of the Monastery of
Magdalene (which existed from the eleventh through
the fourteenth centuries). The number of its Syriac
manuscripts was increased to more than three hundred
and fifty volumes.

22. The Library of Qanqart’s Monastery, near
Diyarbakr, collected in the second half of the twelfth
century. Its books were increased by Bishop John of
Amid in 1203 (cf. The Churches of Basibrina and St.
Thomas in Mosul).

23. The library of the Church of the Two Apostles in
Edessa was collected in later times and contained a
group of the books which had belonged to the Monas-
tery of Mar Abhai in Karkar, after itwas deserted. These
books, which are presendy at Aleppo, number about
one hundred and thirty.

CHAPTER FIVE
Syriac Calligraphy

Since the art of calligraphy is obviously connected
with the language and literature, we have chosen to
devote an earlier chapter to this question, which has

been neglected by historians. Some scholars are of the
opinion that Syriac calligraphy antedates that of the
other peoples of the world, and that the Syrians taught
mankind the early method of writing, from which the
Phoenicians and other nations borrowed their scripts.
Although we cannot positively assert such a belief,
because of the seriousness of the question and the
conflicting arguments of scholars, and because it is
impossible to present a conclusive discussion, we can,
however, briefly state that our Syriac calligraphy is one
of the most ancient calligraphies. The form of the
characters of our Syriac script has changed throughout
the ages, and there are no vestiges of its existence in the
pre-Christian era, exceptafew insignificant lines found
inscribed on stones in Edessa and other places. They
were published separately by J. B. Chabot and Henri
Pognon. 1

In the Christian era, we have the Estrangelo, which is
the best and noblest of the Syriac scripts. Also called the
“open” or the “heavy” or the “Ruhawi” (Edessene), it
was invented by Paul bar Arqa or Anqa of Edessa at the
beginning of the third century, as shall be seen later.
The Estrangelo is considered the source of the Arabic
Kufi script Most of our oldest manuscripts surviving
today are written in this script, which was in continuous
use until the fourteenth century.

The second type is the Western Syriac script, devised
in the ninth century and mixed with Estrangelo for the
simplicity of its use. The Syrians kept modifying it until
it became distinct from the Estrangelo during the twelfth
century. I believe that it is the same script, called “Sarta,”
which was used in writing prose and is still used for this
purpose, while the Estrangelo was strictly used for
decorating the title heads. 2

Among us there flourished a great number of callig-
raphers who perfected and beautified their art. All of
them were either monks, hermits or clerics whose works
were an adornment of knowledge. They undertook the
copying of the most voluminous works with great pa-
tience and perpetuated many types of sciences and arts
in their works.

To be sure, ancient Syriac books preserved today in
the libraries of the Orient and Europe are the oldest
books in the world. 5 We have personally seen and
studied most of them. However, the quantity which has
reached us is very little, in comparison with the great
number that have been lost through time. Even among
these surviving works, we have found a considerable
number either mutilated or lacking the name of the
scribe. We have counted nearly one hundred and thirty
skillful scribes from 462 A.D. to 1264 A.D. who used
three types of Estrangelo, the thick, the medium, and
the fine, with slight difference of beauty among them.
In many manuscripts which they copied, there is found
a creative embellishment and elegance and an over-
whelming degree of perfection and uniformity. They
usually wrote on special glossy parchments and seldom

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

on thick paper, whose manufacture began in Baghdad
at the end of the eighth century, shordy after the
establishment of this city; this process was introduced
from China and spread to other countries. The last
known manufacturing of paper was in Damascus in the
middle of the sixteenth century. 4

From these calligraphers we except a group men-
tioned in some of the biographies of the saints of Tur
Abdin, none of whose works were found, due to the
lapse of time, the successive tribulations which afflicted
their countries, and catastrophes and destructive inva-
sions. These scribes are Samuel and Jonathan, the
ascetics, who flourished in the first quarter of the fifth
century; 5 Daniel the Kundayraybi, the Chief copyist of
Tur Abdin, and his pupils in the middle of the ninth
century; and a few others.

In his Ecclesiastical History, the most learned Bar
Hebraeus stated that ‘John of Basibrina, metropolitan
of the Monastery of Qartamin (998-1034), restored the
use of the Estrangelo script in Tur Abdin and its neigh-
borhood almost a hundred years after the destruction
of the monastery. He taught this art to his nephews, the
monks Emmanuel, Peter and Yaish, after he had learned
it himself by careful study of books. The first of them,
the deacon-monk Emmanuel, copied seventy volumes
of both Testaments according to the Pshitto, the
Septuagint and the Harqalite versions. He also tran-
scribed homilies in three columns and thus adorned
the monastery of Qartamin with books which have no
equal in the world.” 6 A copy of one of the Gospels
belonging to the patriarchal seat is preserved at our St.
Mark’s library in Jerusalem, under number 1.

Also famous in the art of calligraphy was Patriarch
Yuhanna (John) XII, known as Yeshu the scribe (d.
1220), who, during his monastic life, transcribed about
eighteen books; one of these was a Gospel, decorated
with aqua aurum which had been in the Monastery of
the Cross. I have seen three copies of the gospels in
Aleppo and in Paris (MS. 40). Of the more than four-
teen fanqiths (service books of prayer) transcribed by
the monk-priest Zebina the Shalabdini (d. 1227), only
three survived at our Church of Diyarbakr. Also, a
pictorial Bible is found in the Jerusalem library 7 (MS.
28) , and another copy of the Bible in Paris, transcribed
by the monk-priestBacchus of Beth Khudaydaal-Tawwaf
(“wanderer”), 1213-1257. Further, Patriarch Michael
the Great (d. 1 199) had beautifully transcribed a valu-
able copy of the Bible, adorned each page with gold and
silver.andbounditwithasilvercover. In theBibliotheque
Nationale in Paris, (MSS. 113 and 167) are also in
Michael’s own handwriting.

Iyawannis Yeshu, metropolitan of Raban (1210),
whose handwriting was extremely good, transcribed
many books, of which a Bible is found at Sl Thomas
Catholic Church in Mosul. Also, Dioscorus Theodorus
bar Basil, metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad (d. 1273), tran-
scribed books which are now preserved at the libraries

of al-Zafaran Monastery, Diyarbakr and Kharput. The
deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli transcribed three books
which are in the libraries of Jerusalem, Aleppo and al-
Sharfa. 8

Bar Hebraeus relates that “an Edessan monk-priest
named Kasrun retreated to the town of Maragha, in
Persia, together with people from al-Sham (Syria), who
had been transported there by the Persians. He adorned
our Church at Maragha with books in his own handwrit-
ing, which remain preserved until this time in Nineveh. 9
He was a skillful calligrapher who spen t most of his days
at St. Bahnam’s Monastery. He died in 1139.” 10 The
surviving work in his handwriting is the Book of Psalms
in the Estrangelo and the Western script, copied ac-
cording to the Pshitto version and the variant readings
of the Sep tuagin t, with his commen taries on it, which he
finished at Maragha in 1 1 27. This volume is preserved
at the Chaldean Patriarchate in Mosul, under No. 4.

Distinguished for their art of engraving and decorat-
ing, apart from their calligraphy, were the deacon
Joseph of Melitene (d. 997) , the monk Yaish ofBasibrina
(formerly mentioned), the monk-priest Peter, son of
the deacon Abu al-Faraj Saba of Basibrina, the monk-
priest Sahdo Tuma of Tur Abdin (1241), the monk
Mubarak bar Dawud of Bartulli (1239), the monk-priest
Bacchus of Beth Khudayda (formerly mentioned), the
monk-priest Joseph of Arnas (d. 1449), and the monk
Daniel Qusuri (d. 1577). Of lesser talentwas Dioscorus,
metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad.

From the thirteenth century until our time, about
one hundred and seventy calligraphers improved the
Western script and used three types of it, the thick, the
medium, and the fine. The latter is exceptionally el-
egan t, especially the type known as the Karkari, after the
town or the citadel of Karkar, situated between Diyarkakr
and Edessa and their neighboring villages. From 1577
to 1820 the calligraphers of these districts developed a
fine script of extreme beauty and brilliant lines.

Of those who perfected the Western script, we would
like to mention specifically the monk Yeshu Shini of
Bedlis (1298), the monk-priest Saliba bar Khayrun of
Hah ( 1 340) , the monk-priestjacob of Manimim ( 1404) ,
the monk Joseph of the Natif Monastery (1443), the
metropolitan Simon of Aynward (d. 1490), George bar
Qarman, metropolitan of Mardin (1504), the Metro-
politan Sergius of Hah (1508), the patriarch Nuh the
Lebanese (d. 1509), Musa Ubayd of Sadad, metropoli-
tan ofHims (d. 1510), the monk-priest Ibrahim Zanbur
ofBasibrina, who transcribed nearly twenty volumes (d.
1512), Joseph, metropolitan of Kafr Hawwar (1513),
the Patriarchjacob I (d. 1517), the Maphrian Sulayman
of Mardin (d. 1518), the priest Simon of Hirrin (d.
1523) , Yusuf the Iberian, Metropolitan ofjerusalem (d.
1537), the Patriarch Pilate (d. 1597), the monk-priest
Ibrahim bar Ghazwi the Qusuri (1607), Bahnam of
Arbo, Metropolitan ofjerusalem (d. 1614), the monk-
priest Abd al-Azim of Klaybin (1612), the Metropolitan

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Dionysius Abd al-Hayy of Mardin(1621), the monk-
priest Abd Allah al-Mashlul of Mardin (1621), the Met-
ropolitan Yuhanna of Beth Khudayda (d. 1625), the
Maphrian Isaiah of Inhil (d. 1635), the Maphrian
Bahnam Bati (d. 1655), Aslam, metropolitan of Amid
(d. 1741), the Metropolitan John Shahin of Amid (d.
l755),theChorepiscopusJacobofQutrubul (d. 1783),
Iliyya (Elijah) Shiah of Mardin, metropolitan of
Bushayriyya (d. 1805), the Metropolitan Abd al-Nur of
Arbo (d. 1841), Metropolitan Saliba of Basibrina (d.
1885), George KassabofSadad, metropolitan ofjerusa-
lem (d. 1896), the monk-priest Yeshu of Manimim (d.
1916), the deacon Matta Bulus (Paul) of Mosul, who
transcribed more than forty volumes of different sub-
jects, including commentaries on the Pentateuch, the-
ology, ecclesiastical jurisprudence, history, literature
and asceticism. They are preserved in different librar-
ies. He is still living and has passed his eighty-sixth year
of age. 11 Moreover, a number of our clerics still perfect
the Syriac calligraphy.

The first calligrapher known to have embellished the
fine Karkari script was Gregory Vaness Najjar of Wank,
metropolitan of Cappadocia and then Edessa (1577-
1607). He transcribed about twenty volumes of differ-
entwri tings. He also transcribed with extreme precision
several copies of the Gospels and the Psalms, in an
extremely fine and compact handwriting. Each copy
not more than seven centimeters long. Three of these
copies are preserved - one in the library of St. Mark’s
Monastery in Jerusalem, another in the Boston Li-
brary, 12 and the third in the possession of one of the
priests in Mosul. From the artistic point of view, these
manuscripts are considered a marvel.

Other calligraphers are Michael Barsoum of Urbish,
metropolitan of Karkar (1590-1630), who transcribed
the history of Michael the Great; his uncle, the monk
Pilate Mukhtar (1584); the two monks Sahdo of Karkar
(1599) and Micha of Wank (1606).

At the end of this book the reader will find a chrono-
logical catalogue of the names of these excellent men
which were extracted from the invaluable manuscripts
they copied. These manuscripts which survived destruc-
tion attest to their excellence. We have arranged them
according to their dates of transcription beginning with
the oldest dates.

CHAPTER SIX
Morphology and Grammar

The Syrians mastered the speaking and writing of
their language by instinct and by custom. They did not
need rules to guide them into eloquence or protect

them from error. They remained in this state for an
exceedingly long time. Butwhen they familiarized them-
selves with the principles of Greek grammar written by
Dionysius of Corinth, 1 they translated it into their own
language. According to Bar Zubi, 2 the oldest Syriac
grammar is attributed to Ahudemeh, Metropolitan of
Takrit and all the East (d. 575), who based it on the
principles of Greek grammar.

To Jacob of Edessa, however, belongs the credit for
delineating the path of Syriac grammar and explaining
its methods. Jacob wrote the first systematic book on
grammar. Bar Hebraeus cited significant parts from it
which indicate the voluminousness of the original which
has been lost to us. There remained only fragments of
it, in which the author alluded to the defects of Syriac
writing because of its concern with the consonants
rather than vowels. And when the priest Paul of Antioch
requested him to correct this faulty method, he an-
swered that he had given some thought to this question.
In fact, it had occurred to his predecessors, but their
fear of the loss of these ancient books prevented them
from attempting to do it. However, Jacob invented
seven vowels to eliminate the deficiency. But the Syrians
kept using the five vowels known to us today, which were
instituted by the Magdalene Syrian monks of Qarqafta
(“the Skull”) Monastery, who vocalized the language of
the Scriptures. In order to attain a correct reading,
Jacob of Edessa also used thirty-six diacritical points, by
which he completed the forms of letters. 3 It is believed
that the stylite ascetic John of Atharb wrote a grammar
book which had been mentioned by the Subawi, 4 and
partly cited by Bar Zubi. The abbot David bar Paul
produced another work on grammar, of which only
small portions remained. We notice, however, that
Anton Rhetor does not mention these grammarians.

The grammar which we have today is represented by
The Dialogue (in prose as well as in metrical form) by
Jacob of Bartulli. His sources are the Greek philoso-
phers, the teachers of the Syrian schools, and the Book
of Light (or Rays) by Bar Hebraeus. This book, divided
into four parts, deals with the dialects of the western
Syrians, who are members of our communion, as well as
those of the eastern Syrians (Chaldeans and Nestorians) .
He also incorporated in it a chapter on Arabic gram-
mar. It is considered the best, most complete, and most
exact work on grammar. It became a constitution for
the students, an authority for the grammarians, and a
reliable source for the Syriac-speaking people. He also
composed the chapters of his grammar in the
heptasyllabic meter with commentaries in Syriac, in
order to make it easier for the students to read. A third
grammar, the Book of the Spark, was left unfinished by the
author and is lost to us.

Another short treatise, composed by the Patriarch
Ignatius bar Wuhayb, dealt with the “hard” and “soft”
letters in grammar. Both Patriarch Isaac Azar (d. 1724)
and Bishop Rizq Allah (d. 1772) left small works on

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

morphology. In 1764 the Chorepiscopus Jacob of
Qutrubul wrote an excellent book entitled Zahrat al-
Maarif (“The Flower of Knowledge”) on Syriac gram-
mar and morphology; this was later abridged either by
him or by some of his contemporaries.

CHAPTER SEVEN
General Rules of the Language
and Dictionaries;
Rhetoric and Poetry

After Edessa, Melitene became the destination of the
students of Syriac. In its Cathedral flourished professors
of grammar and philology, some of whom were men-
tioned by Bar Hebraeus in his Semhe (“The Book of
Lights”). One of these grammarians was Eupdox of
Melitene, who flourished in the eleventh or the twelfth
centuries. He composed for his students a philological
collection containing reading lessons, which he dic-
tated to them. He marked these lessons with diacritical
points and special signs to avoid confusion in reading.
Later he collected them in a book which he published
under his own name. Another grammarian, Jacob of
Bartulli, in his very useful book The Dialogue, devoted a
special chapter to the Syriac language, its eloquence,
and the changes which came upon it.

The western Syrians did not compile dictionaries,
but relied on those of the eastern Syrians, namely, the
physicians, Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873) , Yeshu bar Ali (d.
1001), and particularly al-Hasan bar Bahlul al-Awani al-
Tirhani (963). This latter work was interpolated by
some of our writers, who borrowed many useful philo-
logical themes from the works of their predecessors. An
insignificant abridgement of Bar Bahlul ’s dictionary
was made in 1724 by the maphrian Simon ofManimim.
We found a Syriac-Armenian copy of Bar Bahlul’s
dictionary, with few Arabic terms, at the Boston Mu-
seum (MS. 3980) , x copied by Bishop Ephraim Wanki of
Karkar, and completed in the year 1659. Undoubtedly
it was translated into Armenian by a Syrian writer from
Karkar. 2

Between 825 and 840, the monk Anton of Takrit
(Anton Rhetor) composed his splendid work, The Knowl-
edge of Rhetoric, in five treatises; 5 it has not been equalled
by anyone before or since. Four of these treatises are
devoted to eloquence, lucidity of composition, and
partly to philology which shows his creative ability. The
fifth treatise is devoted to the art of poetry, its genres
and meters. By this work he remedied a deficiency,
created a hope for future works, and made an excellent
achievement.

The previously mentioned work, The Dialogue, con-

tains a chapter on rhetoric and a unique treatise on the
art of poetry, confined to the conditions of poetry up to
the lifetime of the author, who died in 1241. It contains
also a portion of the Syriac translation of Aristotle’s
Poetics, particularly concerned with tragedy, which had
been translated by Abu Bishr into Arabic. 4

The Syrian writers were also proficient in the writings
of letters. Of the anthologies of letters those of the
eminent learned men Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of
Mabug, Severus of Antioch, al of which were translated
from the Greek, have reached us intact. Also have
reached us the letter anthologies of Jacob of Edessa,
George, bishop of the Arabs and Dawud (David) ibn
Bulus (Paul). Also survived some individual letters of
the Patriarchs Paul II, Athanasius I, Yuhanna 0ohn ) III,
Severus II, Athanasius II, Iliyya (Elijah) I, Iyawannis I,
Georgy I, Dionysius I, Yuhanna IV, Michael I and Michael
II, and the Maphrians Marutha and Yuhanna I. Other
letters which have also survived are those of Yuhanna of
Talla, Tuma, bishop of Germanicia , Daniel of Salh,
Jacob Baradaeus, Severus Sabukht, the Bishop Severus,
Yuhanna of Atharb, Tuma the Stylite, Anton of Takrit,
Denha the philosopher, Ibn (bar) Salibi and Ibn
Wahbun.ThelettersofShimon (Simon) ofBethArsham,
John of Ephesus and the two Patriarchs Cyriacus and
Yuhanna X, ibn Shushan and many others have been
lost. Our own anthology of letters since ascending the
throne of the Apostolic See on January, 1933 until
today, contains more than one hundred proclamations
and letters. 5

Syriac poetry was composed mainly to imprint reli-
gious teachings in the minds of the people and bestow
upon the different types of prayer an aura of solemnity
created by its melody. And when St. Ephraim achieved
success through his poetry, he was followed and imi-
tated by the succeeding generations. Syriac poetry falls
into two classifications, odes and songs. The odes are
composed in three types of meter: the heptasyllabic
meter, or the Ephraimite, created by St. Ephraim; the
pentasyllabic meter or Balaite meter, invented by Mar
Balai, bishop of Balsh; and the twelve-syllable meter, or
the Sarujite, devised byjacob of Saruj, bishop of Batnan.

According to Anton of Takrit (in the fifth treatise of
his book), our poets composed poetry in other meters
of different syllables, right through the sixteen-syllable
meter. The octasyllabic meter was invented by Anton
himself, but it did not become universally used.

Most of these odes were, however, composed for the
purpose of recitation or chanting during the perfor-
mance of worship, and also to instill the people with
religious principles and virtuous life. They were usually
lengthy; for example, the two poems of Jacob of Saruj
about the creation and the passion of Christ contained
more than three thousand lines, and the poem of Isaac
of Edessa on the Parrot which chanted the Trisagion
contained two thousand one hundred and thirty-six
lines.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

The madrash (metrical hymn) 6 resembles lyric poetry
and is composed in lines of four to ten syllables. Some
scholars have counted seventy-five melodies used for
the authentic hymns or for those falsely attributed to St.
Ephraim ; some of them con tain refrain s. These madr ashes
were preceded by a few opening words from a well-
known hymn, to indicate the tune to be used.

One type of the madrash is the sughith, written in a
dialogue form. The sughith is composed in the
heptasyllabic meter and alphabetically arranged, like
the sughiths between the angel Gabriel and the Virgin
Mary, between Mary and the Wise Men, and between
Abraham and the sacrificial lamb, written by George,
bishop of the Arabs.

After they studied and mastered the Arabic lan-
guage, the Syrians introduced rhyme into their poetry
in the beginning of the ninth century to imitate the
Arabs. They wrote their poems following one rhyme or
using the same rhyme for every two or four lines. Later
they used rhymed prose. At the end of the thirteenth
century, the extremists among these poets began to
imitate with exaggeration the Arabic rhetorical devices,
such as paranomasia and antithesis. They forced them-
selves to compose poetry and thus marred their work
with pretension and complexity, disrupting the delicate
balance of form and content. Apparently, they were
deceived by the poetry of Khamis Qirdahi 7 and Abd
Yeshu Subawi (1290-1318), both Nestorian men of
letters, and by imitating them their poetry became
appallingly poor and colorless.

Some of our later poets in the middle of the fifteenth,
sixteenth and eighteenth centuries followed the path of
Subawi. They were the monk-priests Thomas and David
of Hims, the two patriarchs Nuh the Lebanese in some
of his poetry and Nimat Allah in his poor rhythmic
prose, the two bishops Sergius of Hah and Joseph the
Iberian and the Chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul.
Opposed to these, however, other poets, such as Patri-
arch Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454) , Maphrian Simon ofTur
Abdin (d. 1740), the Bishopjohn ofManimim (d. 1825)
and Bishop Zaytun of Inhil (d. 1855), imitated the old
poets.

CHAPTER EIGHT
Themes of Syriac Poetry

The themes and purposes of Syriac poetry are:

1 . The renunciation of worldly things and the call for
repentance and theway of salvation. To these principles
the greatest part of poetry, especially that of the immor-
tal St Ephraim, and later that of Isaac and Jacob of
Saruj, was devoted. Each one of them had his own

masterpieces and gems of poetry. Likewise Bar Qiqi, in
his very moving poem based on the Sarujite meter,
lamented himself and portrayed his penitence.

2. Description. Theological themes and commentar-
ies on the Bible, as well as the versification of most of its
subjects, prevail in this kind of poetry. The eminent
poet Jacob of Saruj was most important in this field. To
David bar Paul belongs a beautiful poem on the descrip-
tion of trees, their kinds and fruits. George, bishop of
the Arabs, and Lazarus bar Sobto wrote two distin-
guished poems describing the sacrament of the holy
Chrism. In one of his poems, Anton of Takrit described
the charm of the city of Ras al-Ayn. Moreover, Bar
Hebraeus composed magnificent poetry in which he
described springs and flowers. Another poet, David of
Hims, wrote a splendid poem on nostalgia.

3. Praise, used by our poets to exalt our Lord Christ,
the Holy Church, its Sacraments and mysteries, the
virtues of the Virgin Mary, and the categories of saints
and martyrs. The poems of St. Ephraim, describing the
Sacraments of the Church and the virtue of celibacy,
combined subtlety of impression, descriptive charm,
artistic splendor and beauty of theme. In this regard his
poem on the bishops of Nisibin is unique. Also unique
are the poems of St. Jacob of Saruj praising the two
prophets Moses and Elijah, St. Ephraim, John the Bap-
tist, the Apostles Peter and Paul, and the martyrs of
Edessa. Beside their beauty and charm, these poems
reveal the artistic proficiency and rhetorical mastery of
their composers. Of the same category are the two
poems of George, bishop of the Arabs, praising the
martyrs of Sebaste and St. Severus, the poem of Bar Paul
in praise of Bishop John, highly artistic in its use of
rhetoric, and the two poems of Anton Rhetor praising
Sergius and Joseph of Ras al-Ayn.

One of the finest poems is by Bar Sabuni in praise of
Jacob of Saruj. But the most immortal one is the poem
of Timothy of Karkar (composed in the Ephraimite or
heptasyllablic meter) praising the Virgin Mary, distin-
guished for its lucid style, eloquence and fine composi-
tion. Further, Bar Hebraeus praised some of the church
fathers of his time with poems of lasting charm and
fluency. The poem of Abu Nasr of Bartulli, praising Mar
Matta (Matthew) the ascetic, was a great work of rheto-
ric indicating the ability of its composer to utilize all the
various techniques of the art of poetry. To Bahnam of
Hidl belong three excellent poems in praise of the
martyrs Bahnam and Basus and their companions.

Of a mediocre quality are the two poems by Bar
Wahbun in praise of Michael the Great and his nephew
Yeshu of Melitene, the poem of Michael the Great
himself, praisingjohn, metropolitan of Mardin, and the
two poems of Gabriel of Bartulli on the lives of Bar
Hebraeus and his brother al-Safi. Much inferior, how-
ever, are the two poems of Jacob of Bartulli in praise of
the noble physicians Fakhr al-Dawla and Taj al-Dawla of
the Tuma family; their colorless and unnatural style is

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

obvious. You find the good mingled with the bad in the
poetry of Zaytun of Inhil in praise of Sl Gabriel of
Qartamin, and a good introductory verse with well-
formulated lines byjacob Saka, praising the dignitaries
of his time.

4. Elegy. In one area of our Syriac poetry we find a
touch of lamentation for the sinning soul and grief for
the calamities which afflicted our country because of
invasions or wars. Some of these elegies expressed
lamentation over a sequence of events, such as the
poems of Bar Madani, describing the catastrophe of
Edessa; Yeshu bar Khayrun, on the ordeal of the church
of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin and the eastern coun-
tries; Isaiah of Basibrina, on the calamities ofTur Abdin
in the time of Tamerlane; the priest of Habsnas and
John of Basibrina, on the Kurdish invasion of their
country, Dawud (David) of Hims in lamenting the loss
of Syriac books; and the poems of Nimat Allah of
Mardin lamenting his ordeal. The panegyrics ofjoseph
ofMeliteneand those of bar Shushan lamenting the city
of Melitene are lost to us.

In eulogizing men, none other than the masterful
poet Bar Hebraeus has attained the high point of this
genre of poetry, by the thoroughly moving sentiments
of sorrow which he expressed in mourning his brothers
Muwaffaq and Michael. In these eulogies he poured
forth his soul and uttered his verse with an unpreten-
tious sincerity which rendered his efforts in this genre
first-class, highly artistic poetry. His two panegyrics
eulogizing the Maphrian Saliba and the Patriarch John
bar Madani are exemplary. Other poets also wrote
eulogies, like the Patriarch Nuh, who composed a good
poem eulogizing his master the ascetic priest Tuma
(Thomas) of Hims, and the priest Jacob Saka, eulogiz-
ing Bahnam, the metropolitan ofMosul andjoseph, the
metropolitan of Malabar in two poems of good style.

5. Satire. The Syrians did not write satirical poetry;
thus their poetry was free from obscene and worthless
language. However, one finds only a few poems censur-
ing the heretics in support of religion and adherence to
the Orthodox faith. Of this type are the songs in which
SL Ephraim rebuked Bar Daysan and Jacob of Saruj
censured Nestorius. Connected with satire is censure
and expostulation, represented by the poems of Anton
of Takrit dispraising calumny and ingratitude. More-
over, the poem of Bar Andrew may be considered a
sharp criticism of some clergymen in his days, similar to
what Isaiah of Basibrina and Simon of Manimim did in
their two lengthy poems. Bar Hebraeus has few lines
dispraising some of his contemporary leaders, but they
are of a remonstrative, rather than a derogatory nature.

6. Aphorism and philosophy. A great deal of Syriac
poetry contains aphorisms and enduring moral senti-
ments. Philosophical odes are to be found in the an-
thologies of Bar Madani and Bar Hebraeus, such as
those on the soul, perfection and the ways of the perfect.
The poetry of Bar Hebraeus contains an exposition of

the principles of Socrates. A twentieth-century Syrian,
Naum Faiq, translated into Syriac, in metrical form,
portions of the Rubaiyyat (Quatrains) of Umar al-
Khayyam.

7. Friendly ties and longing. A selection of poems of
this sort is to be found in the poetry of Bar Hebraeus,
which is full of tenderness and sweetness. They deal
masterfully with the description of true friendship,
communication with friends and enjoyment of their
company. These poems are vivacious and colorful pic-
tures, adorned with exquisite introductory verses and
lucid style, especially the poems in which he remon-
strated with his schoolmate Maphrian Saliba of Edessa.
Patriarch Nuh also has written a few eloquent lines of
this nature.

8 # Poetry of self-praise, heroism ( hamasa ) ,' and erotic
love ( nasib ) , s had no place among the Syrians. However,
Bar Hebraeus excelled in spiritual love, and his ode on
divine wisdom which he adorned with splendid meta-
phors and charming similitude, is considered his most
superb masterpiece. It is a choice ode, unequalled for its
rich and profound meaning. Part of it was translated in
a metrical form into Arabic by Master Butrus al-Bustani.
It begins thus:

So brightly wisdom shone in our world

That even the sun was eclipsed by her light;

Comely maiden, full-blown matron, rather, an old
woman.

She combined attributes no mortal might.

Many poets of a later period, likejacob of Qutrubul,
Yuhanna (John) al-Bustani of Manimim, and Jacob
Saka, tried to imitate Bar Hebraeus but failed to match
his talents.

CHAPTER NINE
Categories of Syrian Poets

Among the Syrian poets are found the genius, the
gifted craftsman, and those who combine the qualities
of each. You also find the mediocre poetand, finally, the
scribbler of verse.

In the first category St. Ephraim stands as a highly
talented and immortal poet who won the crown of
poetical genius by his masterpieces. Into splendid po-
etry which poured out of his heartwithoutartificiality or
constraint, he translated the details of Christian doc-
trine and its mysteries. His successful artistic style, bear-
ing his own stamp and seal, has never been imitated.
Among the strong characteristics of his poetry are
affluence, profundity, innovation, powerful style and

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the ability to handle adroitly the varieties of poetic
creation.

Under the second heading come Jacob of Edessa,
Bar Sobto, Bar Qiqi, Bar Sabuni and Bar Andrew. Bar
Andrew expertly formed his style and worded his verse
with marked spontaneity. Most of his poetry could well
be placed within the first category.

Those who combine the faculties of genius and
giftedness are Isaac of Amid, Isaac of Edessa, Jacob of
Saruj and Bar Hebraeus. Jacob of Saruj is distinguished
for the creation and thorough examination of new
concepts. Despite the length of his poems, which num-
ber in the hundreds, his poetry was still sound and
intact The reader is immediately struck by the unlim-
ited abundance, and by the penetrating spark of poetry
which suggest to him that he is undoubtedly facing a
messenger inspired by a divine power. Bar Hebraeus
overwhelms you with his elegant expression, lucid style,
natural rhyme and his various enchanting, delicate,
harmonious and artistic forms. He opens his poems
with an exquisite introduction which leaves the reader
no other choice than to follow him to the end. But when
the reader has reached this end, he finds himself more
anxious to discover what is beyond this point, and the
next, and the one following. Bar Hebraeus’ impeccable
poems especially his masterpieces reveal the power of
his spirit and art, and the vastness of his knowledge and
poetical ability. Indeed, very few other poets were able
to achieve such harmony and simplicity in their poetry.

Famous for their illuminating introductions, clear
expression, and exquisite style are Cyrillona, Asuna,
Balai and Jacob of Edessa, particularly in his madrash on
the Passion of Christ

In the mediocre category come Anton of Takrit,
Ezekiel of Melitene, Abu Nasr al-Bartulli, al-Hidli, Nuh
the Lebanese and Simon of Tur Abdin. Their poetry is
characterized by pleasant introduction, purity, smooth-
ness and powerful style. The poetry of the latter two,
however, is more fluent and natural, except for the few
instances in which Nuh the Lebanese employed a forced
rhyme. The later poets, as well as the scribblers of verse
have produced both good and bad poetry. The compo-
sition of their poetry is a technical rather than artistic
process. This is why they sometimes succeeded in pre-
senting their art and sometimes failed. They were fol-
lowed by another type of scribblers of verse, whose
poetic compositions were marked by primitiveness,
inferiority and monotony, and showed little excellence.

We may nowclassify these poets into four categories. 1
The first includes SL Ephraim (d. 373), Asuna and
Cyrillona (d. 400), Isaac of Amid, Rabula (d. 435), Isaac
of Edessa and Simon the Potter (d. 514) and his group
(the potters), Jacob of Saruj (d. 521), Jacob of Edessa
(d. 708), George, bishop of the Arabs (d. 725), Bar
Sobto (d. 829), Bar Qiqi (d. 1016), Bar Sabuni (d.
1095), theKarkari (d. 1 143), Bar Andrew (d. 1 156), Bar
Madani (d. 1263) and Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286).

The second includes Samuel the disciple of Mar
Barsoum, David bar Paul (800), 2 Anton ofTakrit (840),
Denha, Ezekiel of Melitene (905), Abu Nasr al-Bartulli
(1290), Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425), Bahnam of Hidl
(d. 1454), Malke Saqo (1490), Nuh the Lebanese (d.
1509) and Maphrian Shimun (Simon) (d. 1740).

In the third category are Bar Wahbun (d. 1193),
Michael the Great (d. 1199), Hananya al-Gharib (the
stranger) (d. 1220), Jacob of Bartulli (in his versified
grammar only) (d. 1241), Gabriel of Bartulli (d. 1300),
Yeshu bar Khayrun (d. 1335), Saliba bar Khayrun (d.
1340), Bar Shay Allah (d. 1493), David of Hims (d.
l500),Masud ofZaz (d. 1512), Nimat Allah Nural-Din
(d. 1587) Yuhanna (John) of Khudayda (d. 1719), the
Qutrubulli (d. l783),John al-Bustani (d. 1825), Zaytun
al-Nahli (d. 1855), Naum Faiq (d. 1930) andJacobSaka
(d. 1931).

The fourth class includes Bar Ghalib (d. 1177),
Hasan Abu Zaruqa and Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1490), Isa
al-Jazri (d. 1495), Abdo of Hah (d. 1504), the priest of
Habsnas (d. 1505), Sergius of Hah (d. 1508) Joseph the
Iberian (d. 1537), Bar Ghurayr (d. 1685), Hidayat Allah
of Khudayda (d. 1693), Yuhanna of Basibrina (d. 1729),
Bar Mirijan (d. 1804), Gurgis (George) of Azekh (d.
1847).

Some of these poets, like St. Ephraim and Jacob of
Saruj, were so prolific that the poetry they composed
during their lifetime would fill many volumes. Slightly
less prolific poets, like Isaac, filled voluminous antholo-
gies. Bar Hebraeus and Bar Paul, as well as the composer
of pieces of poetry, 5 were moderate. Cyrillona and those
like him were much less productive. We have even
found poets who wrote only one poem or even few lines
of poetry.

The poets whose anthologies have been collected
and preserved are: St. Ephraim, Isaac (of Amid), Jacob
of Saruj, David bar Paul, Anton ofTakrit, Bar Andrew,
Bar Madani, Bar Hebraeus, Nuh the Lebanese, Simon
of Tur Abdin and Jacob Saka. On the other hand, the
poetswhose poems we can neither describe nor criticize
because they are unavailable are Wafa the Aramaean,
Bar Daysan (d. 222), Shimun (Simon) bar Sabbai (d.
344) , Aba, Absmayya (d. 400 ) , Dada of Amid and Marutha
ofMiyafarqin (d.420), the Patriarch George I, (d. 790),
Simon Bar Amraya (d. 815), Joseph of Melitene (d.
1055), Bar Shushan (d. 1072), and Bar Salibi (d. 1171).

Also, we have some anonymous poems, amongwhich
is an ode about Uriah the Hittite; these were in the five,
seven, and twelve-syllable meters, and were composed
before the eleventh century. 4 We have also read a poem
in the same style by later poets. Another magnificent
poem in the heptasyllabic meter concerns the Feast of
the Ears of Corn and the praise of the Virgin; it opens
with “O Christ, the bread of heaven, who descendeth
from the heights to earth.” It was probably composed by
Bar Shushan . An other eloqu en t poem in praise ofjacob
of Saruj is also attributed to Bar Shushan, 6 as well as a

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

twelve-syllable meter poem on St. Cyriacus the Martyr, 7
two poems and a Sughith (song) about the two martyrs
Bar Sabbai and Bar Bashmin, 8 a poem on Shallita the
hermit, 9 and a splendid rhymed heptasyllabic Sughith,
alphabetically arranged, usually recited at meals and
during the drinking of wine. 10 This latter begins with:
“Thee I praise O Lord,” 11 and twenty-two edifying,
gnomic, alphabetically arranged poems the first of
which contains one Olaph (A), the second one Beth
(B), and so forth. 12

CHAPTER TEN
Versions of The Holy Bible

The Old Testament has two versions in Syriac. The
simple version, the Pshitlo, is called thus because its
translation is plain and simple. The date of its transla-
tion, however, is subject of controversy among scholars.
Some of these scholars claim that its introductory chap-
ters were translated from the Hebrew into Syriac in the
time of Solomon, son of David, and Hiram, King of
Tyre. Others are of the opinion that it was translated by
Asa the priest However, both of these views are poor
and refutable. Still others hold that it was translated in
Jerusalem by order of King Abgar of Edessa and St.
Addai the Apostle. More correctly, the Pshitlo was trans-
lated by a group of christianizedjews in the first century.

The second version, the Septuagint, was rendered by
St Paul of Tall Mawzalt, 615-61 7, by order of Athanasius
I, patriarch of Antioch after the Hexapla of Origen, i.e.,
the Greek translation based on six sources. 1 The
Septuagint translation became the scholars’ founda-
tion for interpreting the Holy Scriptures. Bar Hebraeus
often refers to it in his commentary Ansar Roze (Store-
house of Secrets) under its name in the Greek transla-
tion. He also devotes a chapter to it in his large book of
grammar Semhe (The Book of Lights) 2 in which he cited
twelve testimonies from the books of both Testaments
proving the precision of the Septuagint rather than the
Pshitlo in order to show the correctness of the first and
also to close the gate of dispute and controversy in this
matter.

Later on the reader will come across a special trans-
lation of the Psalms rendered by Simon, abbot of the
Monastery of Liqin, in the first quarter of the seventh
century. 5

The New Testament had three translations. The first
is the simple translation made at the close of the first
and the beginning of the second centuries. This version
contained all the books of the New Testament except
the second and the third epistles of St.John, the second

epistle of St. Peter, and the epistle of St. Jude. The
second is the Philoxenian translation rendered by
Chorepiscopus Polycarp in the care of Mar Philoxenus,
metropolitan of Mabug in the year 505. The third is the
Heraclean translation from the Greek by Tuma of
Harqal (Thomas of Heraclea) , bishop of Mabug in 61 6.

The two Testaments also had another translation
made according to the dialect of Palestine. It is the
newest of all the formerly mentioned translations of
which only a few portions survive.

CHAPTER ELEVEN 1
The Diatessaron

The Diatessaron, i.e., “through the Four”, is the
Greek word for the unified Gospels containing the life
and divine teachings of Christ. According to Eusebius of
Caesarea and a group of our Syrian scholars until the
thirteenth century, itwas compiled in fifty-five chapters
(around 172/ 173 A.D.) byTatian, of Adiabene by birth,
who was also called the Assyrian.

Contemporary scholars sharply disagree about the
Diatessaron. Some of them think thatTatian compiled
it in Greek and then he or others translated it into
Syriac. Others think he compiled it in Syriac. These
scholars also have different opinions regarding the text
of the Syriac translation which he used. A group of them
conjecture that he used the Pshitlo before itwas revised, 2
others think that he used an old translation other than
the Pshitlo such as the Syrian Antiochian translation
known today as the Sinai Version, so-called because its
copy was found in Mount Sinai Monastery in 1892, in
the MS. 30 transcribed byjohn the Stylite at the Monas-
tery of St. Canon in the Maarrat Misrin in the year 698
or 789. This version was published by Mrs. Lewis in 1 91 0.
Still others think that he used the translation discovered
by Cureton in the British MuseumMS. 14450, which was
transcribed in the fifth century and published in 1858
and is called the Curetonian Gospels. Itwas republished
by Burkitt in 1901, but this and the former edition are
incomplete. Contemporary scholars also disagree about
the date of these two translations. The reason probably
is the scarce information given by ancient scholars
about Tatian and his compilation.

The Diatessaron was highly received by the Syrians in
Edessa, and the two provinces of the Euphrates and
Mesopotamia for its smooth style, excellent composi-
tion and historical arrangement. They called it “The
Mixed Gospel”. They used it in their churches and re-
published it extensively. Aphrahat quoted it; Ephraim
commented upon it; and his commentary today survives
in an Armenian manuscript transcribed in 1 195 and

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

translated into Latin and published by Aucher in 1876.

The Diatessaron was in use until the first quarter of
the fifth century when it was suspended by Rabula,
metropolitan of Edessa, to protect the integrity of the
Revealed Book (the Holy Bible). At that time, he intro-
duced the separate Gospels, which it is said he had
revised according to the Greek origin, in its place. He
was followed by Theodoret of Cyrus who eliminated
more than two hundred copies in his diocese. Subse-
quently, its circulation in the church was stopped and
the copies that remained were used only for general
reading. 5 A copy of the Diatessaron was, however, found
in the middle of the ninth century in the handwriting of
Isa ibn Ali, the physician and disciple of Hunayn ibn
Ishaq whose translation into Arabic was ascribed to the
priest-monk Abu al-Faraj Abd Allah ibn al-Tayyib in the
middle of the eleventh century. This Arabic version was
translated into Latin and published by the priest Augus-
tine Ciasca in 1888. Also, it was twice translated into
English -and into German in 1896 and 1926. The idea,
however, of compiling the four Gospels in one had
occurred to more than one Christian scholar. The
oldest among these were Theophilus, patriarch of
Antioch (d. 180), according to Hieronymus (Jerome) 4 ,
Ammonius of Alexandria, who is thought to have died
around 226, and Elijah the Syrian, while he was bishop
of Salamya, in the beginning of the ninth century. But
when, in the middle of the ninth century, the monk
Daniel of Beth Batin assigned Biblical lessons for the
Week of Passion, he restored the use of the Diatessaron
and in some chapters sought the assistance of the
Harclensian version. 5 Further, a few Coptic scholars
around the thirteenth century intended to make an
Arabic compilation of the Diatessaron following the
method of Ibn al-Tayyib, to which they appended two
tracts on the genealogy of Christ our Lord and his
resurrection. These tracts had not been included in the
Diatessaron of Tatian which opened only with the five
verses of the first chapter of the Gospel of St. John. A
transcribed copy of this Arabicversion in the fourteenth
century is preserved at the Vatican library.

As for Tatian, he was born a heathen around the year
110 and studied literature, oration, history and philoso-
phy in Greek and journeyed throughout Greece. His
journey led him to Rome where he read the Old Testa-
ment, liked it, and preferred it to the writings of the
philosophers. He embraced Christianity and was associ-
ated withjustin ofNeapolis, the philosopher, saint, and
martyr. 6 He established or followed the principles of
that sect of Anchorites called “The extremely Chaste”.
Because of this, he was excommunicated from the
Church. To some critics the reason for his excommuni-
cation was some erroneous and dangerous phrases
which he used in his writings. He returned to his
country, or most likely to Edessa where he died around
180 or shortly after it He was a vessel of knowledge and
a philosopher too. He composed many works in Greek,

all of which are lost except his harsh and censuring
letter to the Greeks. No writing of his is known in Syriac
except the Diatessaron which most of the scholars think
was either compiled or translated by him. 7

CHAPTER TWELVE
Syriac Orthography

Syrian philologists knew orthographic rules only by
tradition. Teachers of the Holy Bible, according to the
Pshittoversion starting with the Psalms, usually directed
their pupils to read and vocalize correctly. They taught
them the forming of letters, intonation, the marking of
vowel signs and the fixing of diacritical points over
words. This methodology began in the School of Edessa
at the beginning of the fifth century from whence it was
transmitted into the school of Nisibin. It was usually
divided into three parts. The first, contained vocalized
and accentuated copies of the Old Testament; the
second, included tracts on diacritical and vowel points;
and the third, contained tracts on vague and strange
terminology. Master Sabroy, the founder of the school
of Beth Shahaq, is accredited with introducing this
methodology into the Orthodox schools of the East.

In 705 St. Jacob of Edessa revised the vocalizing of the
Old Testament text at the Monastery of Talada and
elaborated on the system of vowel-signs, thus complet-
ing the system which we have today. He divided the Holy
Scriptures into chapters, wrote an introduction about
the con ten ts of each, an d made many marginal notes on
the text, together with the correct pronunciation of
words, containing studies of the Greek as well as the
Syriac versions of the Bible. A group of these Biblical
books survive in ancient manuscripts written between
719 and 720.

Eminent philological scholars among the monks of
Qarqafta (the Skull), a monastery in Magdal, a village
on the Khabur river not far from present day Ras al-Ayn
and al-Hasaka, followed the steps of Jacob of Edessa.
Their work led to what became commonly known as the
Qarqaftian Tradition. In Ras al-Ayn two prominent
scholars flourished, Santa Tubana who lived in a mon-
astery in that district and Deacon Saba of Ras al-Ayn.
Saba had a vast knowledge of the science of philology
and a great mastery of the orthographic rules of the
Holy Scriptures. He was a man of piety too.

According to Bar Bahlul in his dictionary (columns
No. 1363 and 1364), whenever Tubana and Saba fin-
ished the vocalizing of a chapter they fixed their initials
at the end. Books, which had been transcribed by Saba
in 724 and 726, have also reached us - indicating the
progress in this art in that period. Among the scholars

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

who worked in this art were Brother Ibrahim of the
Monastery of Quba between 724-726 1 , Simon of the
village of Tall Kummathri, abbot of the Monastery of
Ouspholis, and Theodosius of Talla, the organizer, 2
BishopGurgis (George) in 736, 5 Ibrahim ofHah and his
disciple the deacon Rubil in 817, 4 and Basil, Samuel,
Simon and Guriyya (Gabriel) in the Monastery of
Murayba in 841. 5

MS. 168 of the British Museum contains the Book of
Psalms vocalized by the two monks Samuel and Matta of
the Monastery of the Eastern Syrians in 600. Another,
MS. 1 7l in the same library, contains an old copy of the
Gospels compared, and vocalized by the priest of the
village of Nahra and his two disciples Yuhanna bar
Daniel al-Arabi and deacon Yuhanna the Arab from
Unamra.

These traditional books do not furnish the entire
text of the Holy Scriptures. They are confined only to
the verses whose pronunciation needs adjustment or to
those that differ in both the Greek and Syriac transla-
tions. The reader will find that the pronunciation of
these verses has been accurately accentuated despite
the difference in the copying of these texts. Some of
these philologists added to the Scriptures selected pieces
from the works of our doctors Dionysius theAreopagite,
Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa and
Severus of Antioch. Some of these were engaged in
vocalizing the works of St. Ephraim, Jacob of Edessa,
Antonius of Takrit and the lives and histories of the
saints.

We have found twelve old copies of these traditional
books, which are dated between 980 and 1205. One
copy of these books at the Zafaran Monastery MS. 241,
is dated 1 000 A.D., and another more recent copy at St.
Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem, MS. 42, was written at
the end of the fifteenth century. The British Museum
has a unique Nestorian copy finished in 899. Another
British Museum MS. 163, contains the last volume of St.
Severus vocalized by the two monks Samuel and Tuma
(Thomas) of the Monastery of John of Nayrab in 563.
The library of St. Mark in Jerusalem also contains the
book of Patriarch Cyriacus vocalized by the priest
Theodorus of T akrit of the Pillar Monastery in 806 who,
it appears, became metropolitan of Marash
(Germanicia) between 825 and 834.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Commentaries On The Old and
New Testaments

The Syrian scholars devoted their utmost efforts to
studying and commenting on the Holy Scriptures. Had

the many volumes of commentaries not been lost we
would have today a complete library of these alone. The
oldest of these commentaries belongs to St. Ephraim
who wrote them while teaching at the School of Edessa.
Yet all that survived was the commentary on Genesis, a
great part of Exodus and scattered verses from other
books of the Scriptures. His commentary on the New
Testament has been lost too, but an exposition of many
Biblical verses in his poems and homilies can be found.

St. Ephraim’s disciple, Aba, wrote a commentary on
the Gospels, a discourse on the Book of Job and an
exposition of the ninth verse of the forty-second Psalm.
Jacob of Saruj wrote many maymars (metrical homilies)
containing copious commentaries on numerous sub-
jects in the Holy Bible. The commentary of Philoxenus
of Mabug on the Gospels has reached us. Moreover, we
have the commentaries of Anbajohn bar Aphtonia on
the Song of Songs, of Daniel of Salh on the Psalms in
three volumes and of Marutha, maphrian of Takrit on
the Gospels which has been quoted by the monk Severus
of Antioch. The commentary of Jacob of Edessa on the
Holy Bible have also reached us either in his private
writings or epistles.

Regarding the commentaries of Bishop George of
the Arabs, none of them have reached us except those
quoted by later commentators. Furthermore, Rabban
(doctor) Lazarus of Beth Qandasa compiled a commen-
tary on some of the Pauline epistles, and Patriarchjuijis
I (George) commented on the Gospel of St. Matthew,
John of Dara has a commentary of which nothing is
known except his quotations from Bar Salibi’s commen-
tary on the New Testament. From Moses bar Kifa,
metropolitan of Baremman and expositor of the New
and Old Testaments we have portions of the commen-
tary on Genesis and the Gospels of Matthew, Luke and
John as well as those of the Epistles of St. Paul.

According to Bar Hebraeus in his AusarRoze (Store-
house of Secrets), other commentators were the priest,
Andrew of Jerusalem, deacon Zoura (Zura) of Nisibin
(quoted by Bar Salibi in his commentary on the Old
Testament), and the Rabban Yuhanna (John), the dis-
ciple of Marun, who wrote a commentary on the Book
of Ecclesiastes.

Most prominent in this field is Jacob bar Salibi,
metropolitan of Amid (d. 1171), who contributed elabo-
rate commentaries on both Testaments. In these mas-
terful commentaries he cited the opinions of the eru-
dite commentators before him. He commented on the
Old Testament in many volumes and then abridged his
work with a commentary of adequate length. Unfortu-
nately, his first commentary was lost but the second
survived. Furthermore, his commentary on the New
Testament has become authoritative. Bar Hebraeus’
AusarRoze (Storehouse of Secrets) contains a commen-
tary on the Old and New Testaments which he adorned
with rare traditional as well as philological material. He
also made observations on previous commentaries

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

which uncovered and solved problems with unequaled
erudition. Besides, the Maphrian Barsoum II al-Madani
(d. 1454) abridged and commented upon Bar Salibi’s
commentary of the Gospels, Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl
made a selection of the commentaries of the Salhi on
the Psalms, and David of Hims abridged parts on the
same commentary. 1

It may be known that the pioneer commentators
until the eighth century provided us with the results of
their endeavor. Their commentaries varied from short
to long. The commentators of the second period made
use of the works of their predecessors, especially the
commentaries by the leading Christian fathers like
Ephraim, Basilius,John Chrysostom, Cyril and Severus
as well as the Syrian commentators who followed them.
They chose from their opinion whatever they desired,
added to them what they thought they could add, and,
to a small extent, developed these commentaries. Thus,
Bar Salibi after presenting the different opinions on the
subject leaves it up to the reader to choose what he
thinks the most appropriate for him.

The method used by these commentators was either
to comment on the text verse by verse or confine their
commentary to a group of verses. Some of them, how-
ever, followed the method of the School of Antioch
which emphasized the literal meaning. Others followed
the method of the School of Alexandria which empha-
sized the symbolic and spiritual meaning, while still
others such as Bar Salibi combined both methods.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Apocryphal Writings

In ancient times some writers fabricated apocryphal
treatises of the Old Testament which were spread among
the Eastern Christians especially the Syrians. Among
these are the Parva Genesis or The Book of Jubilees, the
Testament of Adam of which only fragments remain, 1 the
Book entitled the Cave of Treasures 1 ascribed to St.
Ephraim, and the Conversation of Moses with God on
Mount Sinai published by Hall in Chicago in 1888. In
1887 William Wright published a Psalm and four songs,
one of which was Psalm 151, which begins, “I was young
in the house of my father”, taken from the Septuagint.
The first song was the prayer of King Hezekiah when he
was pressed by his enemies, the second was the song of
the Israelites when Cyrus permitted them to return to
their country, the third and the fourth were the songs
chanted by King David after he wrestled with and killed
the wolf and the lion which had each snatched a lamb
from his flock. Also, the Apocalypse of Baruch was pub-
lished by Ceriani in the Book of Ezra and the fourth

book of Maccabees. 5 The latter was republished by
Barnes with six Syriac texts relating to the martyrdom of
the Maccabees. Mention has also been made of the story
of Ahiqar (abridged from an Aramaic copy written
earlier than the Book of Tobit in the seventh or fifth
centuries B.C.) which was published by Rendel Harris
in Cambridge in 1898 and translated into French by
Frangois Nau in 1909.

The apocryphal writings of the New T estament trans-
lated from the Greek are extensive. There is, however,
an obvious difference between them and the originals
such as the Testament of Our Lord which appears in the
Constitutions Apostolorum, believed to have been written
in the beginning of the fifth century, the fabricated
Gospel of the Infancy of our Lord also written in the
fifth century and later the Doctrina Apostolorum written
in the middle of the third century, the letter of St. Jacob
bishop ofjerusalem to the Christian Italian Cydorotus
informing him of the judgement of Tiberius Caesar
against thejews, and the minutes of the trial of our Lord
before Pontius Pilate (which was copied from the Gos-
pel of Nicodemus together with the letters of Herod
and Pilate whose copy was found in the Didascalia
Apostolorum preserved in our Church in Midyat and is
believed to have been transcribed around the eighth
century). It was published by Mgr. Rahmani in the
second volume of his Studia Syriaca , 4

Regarding the story of the Virgin Mary and the life
of Our Lord on Earth, it may be said that they were
abridged from the protevangelium Jacobi and the Gos-
pels of St. Matthew, the Gospel of the Infancy of Our
Lord or the Gospel of St. Thomas the Hebrew and the
Gospel of the Nativity and Assumption of the Virgin in
six chapters (extant in many libraries, one being a copy
from our patriarchal library in Hims finished in 1468; it
was translated into English and published by Wright in
London in 1865, 5 and was republished by Mrs. A. Lewis
in 1902 after a copy in the Library of Mount Sinai.) The
story of the Virgin Mary was translated into English and
published by Budge in 1899.

Moreover, there survive in Syriac only The Story of
Pilate, the Funeral of the Virgin, the Apocalypse of St.
Paul, the Death of John, and the Acts of Matthew,
Andrew and Thecla. 6 The Gospel of the Aposdes written
in the eighth century was published by Rendel Harris in
1900. A great many copies of the Acts and martyrdom of
Peter and Paul, the Life of St.John, the Acts of Philip
and the Apostle Thomas called Judas Thomas also
survive. There are several copies of these acts apparently
written in Syriac around 332 with a Gnostic touch
especially the Song of the Soul which is unique and of
authentic Syriac origin. It was versified in a six-syllable
meter containing one hundred and five refrains. Itwas
edited, translated and published by Bevan in 1 897. Also
preserved in Syriac are the texts of two treatises on
virginity ascribed to St. Clemis (Clement) of Rome (d.
101), but they were most likely written at the end of the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

third or in the fourth century. The apocryphal teaching
of Peter in Rome is of much later period and is remotely
connected with the apocryphal Acts of this Apostle.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Semi-Apocryphal Literature

We may add to the semi-apocryphal literature the
following:

1. The Didascalia Apostolorum. No one would ignore
the value of this magnificent ancient work, which has
become the foundation for the six books known as
Constitutiones Apostolorum. The Didascalia contains the
different canons of the entire church: categories, ranks,
conditions and religious duties of the faithful such as
prayer, fasting and the like. It is established that these
canons were instituted by some pious church fathers in
the beginning of the third century taken from the
traditions of their predecessors, the evangelists who in
turn received them from the Apostles. They modified
them according to the traditions and customs of their
time and ascribed them to the twelve Aposdes. The
Greek origin of the Didascalia is lost, but thanks be to
God, an ancient Syriac copy which dates back to the
third century, i.e., very close to the date of its writing, has
survived. It was published by Paul de Lagarde in Leipzig
in 1 852 according to a copy in Paris which was given as
a gift by the Archduke of Tuscany to Eusebe Renaudot
in the beginning of the eighteenth century and was
republished by Mrs. Gibson in 1903 in London and also
translated into many European languages, for example
French (by Francois Nau in 1912).Acopyofthe Didascalia
completed in 1204 is preserved in our library at Hims.

2. The Doctrine of Addai, or Addaeus is a very old
treatise indicating the existence of the Apostle Addai
and his successor Aggai. It avers that when the King of
Edessa, Abgar the Black, heard of the news of Christ and
the healing which he did without medicine in Palestine,
he wrote Christ, inviting Him to Edessa to cure the king
of his disease and share his kingdom with him. The Lord
Jesus replied that before His ascension into heaven He
would entrust one of His Apostles to cure the king
physically and spiritually. Addai, the Apostle who was
designated for this task, visited the king after the Pente-
cost, cured him and called him to Christianity. The king
as well as pagans and Jews embraced the new faith.
Subsequently, Addai destroyed the heathen temples
and built the first church in Edessa which he adminis-
tered until the end of his days, appointing Aggai his
successor. He was buried in the tombs of the Edessan
Kings. Orientalists believe that this event took place in
the middle of the second century, but in our Ecclesiasti-

cal History we have proved that it took place in the first
century. 1

Eusebius the historian knew this doctrine in its origi-
nal copy, but additions were made to itat the end of the
fourth century such as the story of the messenger of
King Abgar presenting to him the picture of Christ, the
imaginary story of the discovery of the Cross by Brotonica,
wife of Claudius Caesar (41-54 A.D.), which, of course,
was derived from the story of the Empress Helen. It was
translated and published by G. Phillips in London in
1876.

In St. Mark’s Library in Jerusalem there is a copy of
the Testament of our Lord written byClemis (Clement)
in eight chapters, the second book of Clemis translated
byjacob of Edessa to Syriac in 687 and the Doctrine of
Addai under Nos. 153 and 247.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Church Rituals

It is obvious that church rituals, namely, obligatory
prayers and Holy Sacraments, in essence date back to
the beginning of Christianity. For the Church of God
could not do without the supplicatory prayers recited
during the worship, the celebration of the Holy Eucha-
rist and the reciting and explaining of the Book of God,
all of which, according to St. Paul, had been handed
down to it by the Apostles. The author of the Didascalia
has incorporated these along with institutional prayers
of this kind although they are much too brief.

The first supplications were the Psalms of the Prophet
David which prevailed in the Church because they
contained beautiful songs and praises of sweet and
noble meanings. By the end of the fourth century
famous Christian authorities began to introduce into
these rituals metrical hymns of special melodies. Also
they kept writing the necessary prosaic supplications
besides the metrical ones until by the end of the seventh
century the great majority of the rituals of the Syrian
church were in complete order, with some additions
introduced in the following generations. This method
was followed by all the other Christian denominations
regardless of their race or language.

That these church rituals in the first few centuries
were not uniform even in the neighboring countries,
except in their fundamentals and basic branches, is an
established fact. However, it was natural that differ-
ences should occur in the versions of these rituals due
to the spread of Christianity, the vastness and diversifi-
cation of these rituals, and disparity of education be-
tween the authors let alone the ability of the scribes.
Thus Lazarus bar Sobto, metropolitan of Baghdad (d.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

829) , in his treatise on the Revision of the Service of the Holy
Eucharist (para. 3, p. 31), states that “the priests have
composed for themselves service books in which they
ignorantly included superfluous as well as inadequate
matters”. Likewise, Bar Wahbun states in his exegetical
treatise of the Holy Eucharist that “the priests’ service
book contains superfluousness as well as inadequacies”.
Since church rituals which contained many eloquent
writings have a prominent place in the history of Syriac
literature, their study has become most significant. The
Orientalists, however, have overlooked this subject for
its inherent difficulty, with the exception of Baumstark,
who only touched upon it in his book.

These works on the Syrian Church deal with fifteen
kinds of rituals:

1 ) The Ishhim or the book of regular weekday prayer;

2) Lessons from the Holy Bible;

3) The book of liturgies or of the celebration of the
Holy Eucharist;

4) Service book of Sunday for the whole year;

5) Books of prayer for principal feasts as well as
festivals of saints;

6) Two service books for Lent and the Week of
Passion;

7) The books of husoyos or supplications for Sundays,
feasts. Lent, the Week of Passion and others;

8) The service book for baptism, matrimony, ex-
treme unction, and penance;

9) The book of the ordination of clergymen;

10) Book of principal feasts;

11) The book of funerals;

12) The book of the supplication of priests and the
prayers of monks;

13) The church choral book;

14) The book of life;

15) The calendar of feasts for the whole year.

Before venturing into these subjects, however, it

would seem to be feasible to present first a study of
church music which will be supported by references to
ancient copies.

SECTION ONE
Church Music

The fathers of the Church introduced music into the
Church of God for three reasons. First, to combat the
hymns of heathens and heretics in which they tried to
corrupt the doctrine and the morals of youth. They
counteracted by composing lucid, moralistic and reli-
gious hymns which destroyed corrupting poetry. Second,
toassistin energizing the people to worship God and drive
away boredom during the long services. Third, to stimu-
late the senses in order to realize the meaning of prayer.

Usually when worshippers sing or listen to the chant-
ing of prayers they can more easily comprehend the
meaning of what they chant. Moreover, melodious

prayers make their way more quickly into the minds,
souls and hearts of the worshippers, and call for humil-
ity. In this regard the fathers of the Church found an
example in the Psalmist David and his organized choir.
To follow his steps, they composed, after the Council of
Nicaea, hymns with harmonious tunes based on com-
mon musical scales.

St. Ephraim was the first among the Syrians to write
these hymns while among the Greeks St. Gregory
Nazianzen, Cyril of Jerusalem and John Chrysostom
took the lead. Among the Syrians they were followed by
Isaac, Rabula and Balai, the band of the potters, Jacob
of Saruj, the Greek, Severus of Antioch, Jacob of Edessa
and the composers and translators of the hymns known
to the Greeks as the Canons. These and others who
followed in later generations composed various hymns
with a perfection which appealed tremendously to the
worshippers. This is why the great majority of our Syriac
rituals are in metrical form. 1

The Syrians and Greeks used eight melodies which
they called “okteochos” 2 amongwhich were the “warm”,
the “cold”, the “humid” and the “dry” tunes.* These
melodies included the joyful, the grieving, the hum-
bling, the stimulating and the active. Of these, two
counterpart melodies were selected for chanting each
week. For instance, the first melody corresponded with
the fifth, etc. They also prescribed for each feast or well-
known festival season or event a special melody which
perfectly applied to the occasion. 4

For these melodies they chose pleasant and mellow
voices and arranged the singers in two choirs which
chanted antiphonally. These highly organized choirs
were conducted by a priest or deacon skilled in the art
of melody, rhythm and harmony.

Among the conductors who became famous around
the year 1218 was Rabban Abu al-Faraj bar Elisha, distin-
guished for hisvivid memory. According to Bar Hebraeus,
( Eccles . History, vol. 1, p. 637), bar Elisha memorized the
fanqith or service book for the whole year.

From the artistic and composition point of view the
most beautiful songs were the tahhsheftos, qatismas,
muabranas, and madrashes which were the first and
foremost of all the songs. Most of these songs were
characterized by various intonations and pitches which
were delicate and touching. The Syrians, especially of
Diyarbakr and Edessa, have become widely known for
their chanting of these songs received by tradition. But
as they did not write them down in notes, a good many
of them were lost in time although a sufficient number
of them survived.

SECTION TWO

The Regular Weekday Sendee Book

The regular weekday service book or the Ishhim
(Simple) is a medium-sized book comprised of prayers

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and songs, and although brief it contains many themes
relating to praises, repentance, the commemoration of
the Virgin, the Apostles, the Fathers of the Church, the
prophets, and the martyrs and the dead. These prayers
and songs are metrical, save for the verses recited daily
with the Magnificat of the Virgin Mary which begins “My
soul doth magnify the Lord”. They are distributed over
the seven times of prayer, i.e. evening prayer (nones) ,
night prayers (vespers) , the compline, morning prayers
and the prayers at the third hour, sixth hour and ninth
hour. Today, these prayers are chanted only in the
mornings and evenings in special and common melo-
dies based on the eight basic melodies with two of them
alternated for each week.

This service book was most likely compiled at the end
of the seven th century by the effort of St. Jacob of Edessa
as mentioned by a copy preserved at the Bibliotheque
Nationale in Paris transcribed in the fifteenth century.
This author has read in some ancient copies of this book
that it was compiled according to the Edessan tradition.
The authors of this book are St. Ephraim, St. Jacob of
Saruj, St. Isaac, St. Balai, metropolitan of Balsh, and
Simon the Potter. It is not unlikely that Jacob of Edessa
was also a contributor to the writings of this book and
that he selected a simple and unintricate verse that
would be easily comprehended by the different catego-
ries of believers. In the fourth chapter of his treatise
against the allegations of deacon Yeshu who, fascinated
by the Greek rituals, criticized the simplicity of the
Ishhim (Service Book), Bar Salibi wrote: “This book was
prepared for chanting by the simple worshippers and
monastics. This is why its compilers chose simple verses
which would immediately be assimilated by the mind
and would move the heart M1 Indeed things are meant to
suit their purpose.

Of the oldest copies which we came across are few
leaves preserved in the Damascus Museum which are
the remainder of a copy written around the eighth
century in a terminology slightly different from that in
the common copies familiar to us. Another mutilated
copy, owned by the Edessenes’ Church in Aleppo, 2 was
written in the Estrangelo script in the fourteenth cen-
tury according to the tradition of the Holy Mountain of
Edessa. On another place of this copy there is this
statement: “according to the arrangement of the Holy
Monastery of St. Jacob or the Monastery of al-Nawawis.”
This copy also contains verses of poetry different than
the verses which we have today, most of which belong to
the third, sixth and ninth hours of prayer. In these
verses the litany is sometimes repeated or superseded by
a short supplication.

The Ishhim was published in the Zafaran Monastery
in 1890. It was also published by this writer for the
second time in 1913 and for the third time injerusalem
in 1934 and compared with seven other moderately old
copies which were collated with copies in Mosul and al-

Sham which differ in some places. This writer wrote a
historical introduction for the third edition.

SECTION THREE
Lectionaries

Syrian scholars divided the Scriptures into chapters,
from which they selected reading lessons for the whole
year, as follows:

1) for Sundays and feasts, from the consecration of
the Church to the Festival of the Cross;

2) throughout Lent;

3) for principal feasts;

4) for the rituals of clerical ordination and assuming
the monastic order;

5) for the administration of the Holy Sacraments,
especially the consecration of baptismal anointment
and the chrism;

6) for funeral services.

They also prescribed for each Sunday and festival
three lessons from the Old Testament, the third to be
selected from the prophets, and three lessons from the
New Testament, including one from the Acts of the
Aposdes and one from the catholic epistles, or one from
the Pauline epistles and one from the Gospels.

They also prescribed four or five lessons from the
Old Testament for the consecration of the chrism,
specific Sundays of Lentand Good Friday. In the admin-
istration of the two sacraments of baptism and the Holy
Eucharist, only one lesson from the Pauline Episdes and
another from the Gospels are to be recited. Another
three lessons from the Gospels were assigned for morn-
ing and evening recitadon, as well as during the celebra-
tion of the Holy Eucharist. For both Christmas and
Easter, a fourth lesson was added for the evening ser-
vice. Other lessons were also recited twice in every day
of Lent except Saturdays, and at every prayer hour
during the Passion Week. Three lessons were assigned
to the feast of Pentecost.

The assignment of these chapters by the scholars of
the Church was made in accordance with the themes of
Sundays, festivals and ordinary days of worship. Their
division is marked with taste, precision and great wis-
dom not found in the rest of the Eastern or Western
Christian rites. These scholars, however, excluded from
the Scriptures the reading of the Song of Songs, the
Book of Revelation and the greater parts of the two
Books of the Maccabees.

The arrangement of Gospel lessons to be recited in
Passion Week was made in the middle of the ninth
century by Daniel, the monk of the Monastery of Beth
Batin and disciple of Benjamin, bishop of Edessa, as-
sisted by his enterprising pupil Isaac the monk. Daniel
selected some of these lessons from the Diatessaron and
collected those readings scattered in the four Gospels.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

From that time on, transcribers of the Gospels have
mentioned the work of Daniel and Isaac in all the copies
which have reached us. In the Bibliotheque Nationale
MS.258 we read that in 1000 A.D. the Patriarch
Athanasius IV of Antioch, known as al-Salhi (d. 1002),
collected and classified lectionaries from the Old and
New Testaments.

These lessons were recited in Syriac. Three old cop-
ies of the collections of lectioneries are preserved in the
British Museum (MS. 220, dated 824; MS 243 dated 862;
and MS. 224 dated 1000). Another fourteenth century
copy, in a good script, is preserved at our Library in
Hims. Copies of the Gospels are plentiful and available
in most libraries.

The oldest Syriac copy of the New Testament, which
was translated into Arabic, dates back to the year 1189
and is preserved in the Monastery of St Matthew. Much
later the books of the Old Testament were written in
Arabic, and thus the readings of the Bible were con-
fined to this language, except in Tur Abdin. 1 However,
we are unable to investigate the subject of the Arabic
translation of both Testaments, due to the unavailabil-
ity of clear old texts and authentic historical informa-
tion. Whatwe know is thatjohn III, patriarch of Antioch,
concerned himselfwith the translation of the Gospels to
Arabic by scholars well versed in both languages from
the tribes of Tay, Tanukh and U qayl, about the year 643,
at the request of Umayr ibn Sad, Prince of thejazira, as
we are told by the anonymous Edessene historian 2 and
Bar Hebraeus. 3 Another translation into Arabic from
the Septuagint was made by the famous Nestorian
physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873). 4 We have also
found in Kitab al-Din wal-Dawla ( The Book of Religion and
State ) , by Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari 5 (d. ca. 860) , pub-
lished by Mingana in Egypt in 1923, portions of the Old
Testament and chapters from the Books of the Proph-
ets, as well as fragments from the New Testament,
written in the most eloquent and magnificent style. We
do not know much about this translation.

A translation of the Pentateuch from the Syriac
Septuagint into Arabic was made by al-Harith ibn Sinan,
who may be al-Harith ibn Sinan Sinbat al-Harrani the
Malkite at the close of the ninth and the beginning of
the tenth century. 6 A translation of the Old Testament
was also made by al-Shaykh Said ibn Yaqub al-Fayyumi,
better known as Sadiya al-Yahudi (the Jew), about the
year 900. Manuscript 21 of the Florentine library con-
tains an Arabic translation of the Pentateuch from the
Hebrew, made in 1245. Another copy of the Old Testa-
ment containing half of the books of the Pentateuch,
copied from the translated version of al-Shaykh Said al-
Fayyumi, is preserved in the library of the Coptic Patri-
archate in Egypt (MS. 23) and dated 1585. Our library
has a mutilated copy of the Acts and the Epistles trans-
lated by Severusibn al-Muqaffa, bishop of the Ash mu n in,
in the tenth century from Greek, Syriac and Coptic
copies, which were commented on in 1240. Vatican

Library MS. 145 contains an Arabic translation of the
Psalms, the Gospels, the Prophets, and the Episdesfrom
the Greek according to the usage of the Church, by the
deacon Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl al-Antaki al-Rumi (d.
1052).

In 1250 al-Shaykh Asad Abu al-Faraj ibn al-Assal the
Copt coordinated a translation of the Gospels. Our
library in Jerusalem contains two excellent copies of the
Gospels, one in Syriac and the other in Arabic. The
Syriac copy is written in the Nestorian script and un-
dated, while the second copy, more rhetorical than the
first, (MS. 261) was completed in 1229. MS. 42 of the
Bibliotheque Nationale contains a copy of the Gospels
translated from the original Greek, transcribed in 1226.
Another copy in Birmingham (MS. 431) was copied in
1368. 7 The library of Mar Matta (Matthew) Monastery
has the book of Psalms in Syriac and Garshuni, in a very
eloquent language, copied in 1445. We believe that the
Book of Psalms exists in many Arabic translations, as
well as Syriac translations from the Greek.

Despite the difficulty of investigating these scattered
translations and texts, we have found that the Arabic
Church versions of the Holy Scriptures greatly difFer in
quality and fall into three categories: the eloquent, the
mediocre and the poor composition.

Things in the East remained as they were, as we have
formerly mentioned, until the new, familiar Arabic
translation appeared in the nineteenth century, super-
seding the Latin and Arabic translations which were
published in Rome in 1671. Of these translations, the
nearest one to the Syriac Pshitto is the one edited by the
Catholic Bishop Yusuf Dawud, who has copied verbatim
parts of it, especially the New Testament, from old
manuscripts found in the churches and monasteries in
Iraq. It was published in Mosul between 1871 and 1878.
The most lucid of these copies is the Jesuit translation
published in Beirut between 1872 and 1878.

SECTION FOUR
Liturgical Books

“Liturgy” or “anaphora” are two Greek terms signify-
ing the celebration of the Eucharist. The second one,
anaphora, became more popular and widely used by the
Syrians. Of all the Christian denominations, the Syrians
wrote the greatest number of liturgies, amounting to
about eighty pieces of varying length. This writer read
seventy-four of these liturgies. 1

These liturgies belong to two classes. In the first are
those ascribed to some of the Apostles, Evangelists and
early Christian fathers. Apart from the liturgy of St.
James, the brother of our Lord, it would be incorrect to
ascribe any liturgy to an Apostle or Evangelist. However,
some scholars believe that the two liturgies of the twelve
Apostles, as well as that of St. Mark the Evangelist, are

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the oldest. This has been also intimated by the Patriarch
George I (d. 790). 2 The second part includes authentic
and genuine liturgies, regarding only fundamental
matters, beginning with the liturgy of St. Basilius of
Caesarea and Eustathius of Antioch and others. 5 It is
obvious that the liturgy of St. James, which is unques-
tionably old, is of an Apostolic origin in most of its
principal public prayers. Its private prayers, however,
may be ascribed to the post-Apostolic era. This liturgy
was revised by St. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), whose long
version was abridged by Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286) into a
version known as the Short

The oldest liturgy which is preserved in the British
Museum was written on vellum around the tenth cen-
tury. The rest of the copies were written in the latter part
of the twelfth century and thereafter. There is a large
number of these liturgies in most libraries, especially
the British Museum MS. 14690 (dated 1182) and MS.
17229 (dated 121 8). Following is a list of these liturgies:

1, 2) the two liturgies of St. James (d. 61), i.e., the
Long and the Short;

3) the liturgy of St. Mark the Evangelist (d. 62) ;

4,5) the two long and short liturgies of St. Peter (d.
67) , head of the Apostles;

6) the liturgy of the twelve Apostles ascribed to St.
Luke the Evangelist;

7,8) the two long and the short liturgies of St. John
the Aposde (d. 90);

9) the liturgy of Dionysius the Areopagite (d. 96);

10) the liturgy of St. Clemis (Clement) of Rome (d.
102), beginning “O Lord, who art the indescribable
ocean of goodness;”

1 1) a second liturgy by the same man, beginning, “O
God, who art the ocean of love that surpasseth descrip-
tion” (the Hims copy);

12) the liturgy of Ignatius the Illuminator (d. 107);

13) the liturgy of Pope Xystus (d. 25 1); 4

14) the liturgy of Eustathius of Antioch (d. 338),
which begins with “O Lord the compassionate, whose
mercy is abundant;”

15) a second liturgy by this Eustathius, beginning “O
Lord, who are the ocean of safety (St. Mark’s MS. 86) ;”

16) the liturgy of Julius of Rome (d. 356);

17) the liturgy of Athanasius the Apostolic (d. 373) ;

18) the liturgy of Basilius, metropolitan of Caesarea
(d. 379);

19) the liturgy of Cyril ofjerusalem (d. 386);

20) the liturgy of Gregorius Theologus (d. 390);

21) the liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (d. 407);

22) the liturgy of Celestine of Rome (d. 440);

23) the liturgy of Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444);

24) the liturgy of Proclus of Constantinople (d.

444)5;

25) the liturgy of Dioscorus of Alexandria (d. 457);

26) the liturgy of Timothy II of Alexandria (d. 470) ;

27) the liturgy of Jacob of Saruj (d. 521);

28) another liturgy by Jacob of Saruj;

29) the liturgy of Philoxenus of Mabug (d. 523);

30) another liturgy by Philoxenus of Mabug;

31) the liturgy of Severus of Antioch (d. 538);

32) the consecration of the cup by Severus;

33) the liturgy of Simon of Beth Arsham (d. 540);

34) the liturgy of Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578);

35) the liturgy of Peter Callinicus of Antioch (d.
591);

36) the liturgy of Thomas of Harqal (d. 616);

37) the liturgy of Severus, bishop of Samosata (d.
636);

38) the liturgy ofjohn III of Sedras (d. 648);

39) the liturgy of Marutha of Takrit (d. 649);

40) the liturgy ofjohn, bishop of Busra (d. 650);

41) the liturgy of Maphrian Ibrahim al-Sayyad (d.
685);

42) the liturgy of Jacob of Edessa (d. 708);

43) the liturgy ofjohn, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s
Monastery (d. 752);

44) the liturgy of Patriarch Cyriacus (d. 817);

45) the liturgy of Basilius Lazarus bar Sobto, bishop
of Baghdad (d. 828);

46) the liturgy ofjohn, bishop of Dara (d. 860);

47) the liturgy of St. Isaac (tenth century);

48) the liturgy ofMoses Bar Kifa, bishop of Baremman
(d. 903);

49) another liturgy by bar Kifa;

50) the liturgy of Matta or Harma al-Rai, bishop of al-
Hassasa (tenth century);

51) the liturgy of Patriarch John bar Shushan (d.
1072);

52) another liturgy attributed to him by some schol-
ars;

53) the liturgy of Ignatius, maphrian of the East (d.
1164);

54) the long liturgy of Jacob bar Salibi (d. Il7l);

55) a medium-sized liturgy by bar Salibi;

56) another short liturgy by him;

57) a liturgy compiled by Bar Wahbun (d. 1193) from
the liturgies of Church fathers;

58) the liturgy of Patriarch Michael the Great (d.
1199);

59) the liturgy of Jacob, maphrian of the East (d.
1214);

60) the liturgy of Michael (Yeshu the intruder) (d.
1214);

61) the liturgy of Patriarchjohn al-Gharib (d. 1220);

62) the liturgy of Iyawannisjacob bar Shakko, bishop
ofMardin, al-Khabur and Dara (d. 1231);

63) the liturgy of Gregorius of Bartulli, bishop of St.
Matthew’s Monastery and Azerbayjan (d. ca. 1250);

64) the liturgy of Patriarch John bar Madani (d.
1264);

65) the liturgy of the Maphrian Gregorius bar
Habraeus (d. 1286);

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

66) the liturgy of Dioscorus Gabriel, bishop of the
Jazira (d. 1300);

67) the liturgy of Patriarch Ignatius bar Wuhayb (d.
1333);

68) the liturgy of Cyril Simon al-Alini, bishop of Hah
(d. 1333);

69) the liturgy of Bishop John Butahi (fourteenth
century);

70) the liturgy ofjoseph bar Gharib, bishop of Ainid
(d. 1375);

71) the liturgy of Patriarch Ibrahim bar Gharib (d.
1412);

72) the liturgy of Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d.
1454);

73) the liturgy of Qawma, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d.
1454);

74) the liturgy of John Gurgis (George), bishop of
the Monastery of Qartamin (d. 1495), compiled from
liturgies composed by writers with the name ofjohn; he
may have written a special liturgy which has been lost to
us;

75) another liturgy compiled by the same man from
other liturgies each one written by writers named Jacob;

76) the liturgy of Masud II of Zaz, patriarch ofTur
Abdin (d. 1512);

77) another liturgy by him lost to us;

78) a third liturgy by him, also lost to us;

79) the liturgy of Basilius Abd al-Ghani I, al-Mansuri,
maphrian of the East (d. 1575).

Some later scholars have ascribed additional litur-
gies, aboutwhich we are uninformed, to Severus Sabukli t,
bishop of Qinnesrin (d. 665), Severus Jacob, bishop of
St. Matthew’s Monastery and Azerbayjan (d. 1241),and
bar Qinayawho is probablyjacob of Hattakh (d. 1360).

Some liturgies were written in Greek and then trans-
lated into Syriac, probably by Thomas of Harqal
(Heraclea), including the liturgies of Dionysius the
Areopagite, Ignatius the Illuminator, Cyril of Jerusa-
lem, Gregory Nazianzen, and Timothy of Alexandria;
and the liturgy of Severus of Samosata was translated by
Ibrahim of Amid in 598. No doubt the liturgies of
Eustathius, the Caesarian, Athanasius, Chrysostom, Cyril,
Proclus, Dioscorus of Alexandria, and Severus of Antioch
were written in Greek, but their translators are un-
known. Of these liturgies two, belonging to Thomas of
Harqal and Michael the Great, as well as the closing
prayer of the liturgy of Basilius Abd al-Ghani, were
alphabetically arranged.

Other liturgies were prescribed for special feasts and
special ceremonies. In the introduction to the liturgy of
Gregorius Jacob, maphrian of the East, we find a com-
mentary by his uncle. Patriarch Michael, confirming it
and permitting its celebration. Some of these liturgies
were erroneously ascribed to different authors, due to
the negligence of the transcribers. For example, the
liturgy which opens with”Eternal and compassionate
God” was attributed to Gregorius of BartuIIi, bishop of

St. Matthew’s Monastery, while some copyists ascribed it
to Bar Hebraeus.

Renaudot 6 erroneously mentions that the liturgy of
Bar Hebraeus begins with “O God, Lord of Hosts,” and
that the liturgy compiled by John bar Wahbun begins
with “Almighty God, whois beyondcomprehension.”In
another copy this same liturgy begins with “Almighty
and Gracious God.” Similar mistakes occur in the litur-
gies of Philoxenus of Mabug, Simon of Beth Arsham,
and Patriarch Lazarus bar Sobto. However, a liturgical
copy in Tur Abdin ascribes one of the liturgies of
Philoxenus of Mabug to his nephew Philexene, nick-
named “the Young,” bishop of Duluk, who adopted the
doctrine of Chalcedon. There is no evidence that
Philexene has written a liturgy.

The style of liturgies, although simple, is difficult to
imitate. It combines lucidity of expression with profun-
dity of meaning. The liturgy is written with elegance,
skill, and unsurpassed sweetness which induce the hear-
ers’ awe and submission, bind their hearts with divine
matter, and arrest their attention throughout the cel-
ebration of the Holy Eucharist. Further, it induces them
to contemplate the wonders of this divine mystery and
then leave the Houses of God with abundant love. The
authors of these liturgies should therefore be recog-
nized for their excellence.

The celebration of the liturgy is preceded by a husoyo
(propitiatory prayer) , which is recited before the Creed
of Faith, and known as the “ Sedra of Entry;” 7 of these
prayers we have about thirty. The Vatican MS. 25 con-
tains fifteen sedras or expiatory prayers; among their
authors are the Patriarchjohn III, of the Sedras, 8 Patri-
archAthanasius (mostprobablyAthanasiusII ofBalad),
Jacob of Edessa, John bar Shushan, Jacob bar Salibi,
Thomas the Stylite, Gabriel of BartuIIi, Cyril of Hah,
Qawma, patriarch ofTur Abdin, and Yeshu of Basibrina. 9

The liturgy ends with a dismissory hymn, usually a
verse chosen from among eight hymns of the twelve-
syllable or the seven-syllable meter, composed by Bar
Madani, Gabriel of BartuIIi, Bahnam of Hidl, the priests
Hasan of Mosul and Isa aljazri, the monks David of
Hims, Abdo of Hah, and Gregorius, bishop of Jerusa-
lem. The dismissory hymn was used, as we believe, in the
middle of the thirteenth century. In a Beth Gaz (The
treasure of church melodies) in Mardin transcribed in
the sixteenth century, we find the dismissory hymn
precedes the Benediction of the priest, which begins
with “Departye in peace,” and contains the intercession
of saints.

The celebration of the liturgy is preceded by silent
prayers recited by the priest during the Mass, particu-
larly the prayer for breaking the bread, written byjacob
bar Salibi, followed by four supplicatory verses by Mar
Jacob. A part of the liturgy are the prayers recited by the
serving deacon and the group of the clergy which
begins with a manith (hymn), by Severus of Antioch,
based on the tradition ofMelitene. Of interest in this

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

regard are the six Intercessions, or commemorations of
both the living and the dead. These Intercessions are of
three or four types, long and short The long one is
known as the Eastern Intercession, being used by the
Eastern Church, which was under the jurisdiction of the
See ofTakrit. 10 The fifth intercession, that of the Church
fathers and doctors, is usually recited by two deacons,
only during Lent, as has been the custom in the Church
of Mosul and its neighboring churches until today. This
intercession, unknown to other churches outside the
vicinity of Mosul, contains the names of the majority of
the doctors of the Church and the Maphrians of Takrit,
from Ahudemeh to Saliba I (d. 1231). In some manu-
scripts this intercession contains the name of the illus-
trious Maphrian Gregorius Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286)
and, interspread with it, the names of a group of eastern
bishops and saindy hermits, giving in lengthy or brief
details an elegant description of their virtues, character,
and great deeds. However, this intercession is not free
from verbosity.

In a Beth Gaz, transcribed in 1569 and preserved in
our library, we found an Eastern intercession unknown
to us before, which differs completely from the rest of
the intercessions. Evidendy it is old and has been ne-
glected for ages. We also have a few verses chanted on
the Sundays of Lent before the prayer of Peace, which
may be the composition of Bar Salibi. The fathers of the
Church have also selected a public hymn called the
“Catholic,” usually sung during the breaking of the
sacrificial bread. Not very long ago, these hymns were
substituted for Arabic hymns, which are better under-
stood by the congregation; some of these are to be
found among the hymns sung in answer to the conclud-
ing prayer in the long service book, which we published
in Dayr al-Zafaran (1912). Most of these Arabic hymns
are of our composition.

To the liturgy is added a long prayer for the sick and
the afflicted, recited shordy before the end of the Mass.
Because it is seldom used today, this prayer has been
replaced by a short supplication in Arabic.

In 1716 Renaudot published thirty-seven liturgies
translated into Latin, beginning with the liturgy of St.
James and ending with the liturgy of Bar Wuhayb. In
1939 Codrington republished the liturgy of Severus of
Antioch, and in 1897, the Chore piscopus Matta Konat
of Malabar published seven liturgies, while his son the
priest Ibrahim published eighteen others in 1931. 11

The firstknown liturgy in Arabic dates back to 912. In
this regard Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Jarir of Takrit, the
Syrian, in his book al-Murshid (Chapter 54) , states that,
“In that year the Metropolitan of Takrit invested with
the episcopate a pious man from the Christian Arabs,
who celebrated for them the Eucharist in Arabic.”
Other efforts to translate the liturgy into Arabic began
in and after the seventeenth century, although these
translations were written in Garshuni (Arabic written in
Syriac Script) and in imperfectlanguage. A fair number

of liturgies were translated into mediocre Arabic by the
Chorepiscopus Elias of Mosul before his death in 1907.
We ourselves translated eight liturgies and five husoyos
(propitiatory prayers) in 1910.

SECTION FIVE

Service Books For Sundays For The Whole Year

The services contained in these books extend from
the Sunday of the Consecration of the Church, at the
end of October or the beginning of November, until the
Sunday immediately preceding the Nativity of our Lord.
They comprise eigh t orders, followed by five or six more
services for the Sundays immediately following the
Epiphany; interposed between these two groupings are
the prayers for the Sunday following the Nativity of our
Lord and two other Sundays, devoted to the commemo-
ration of priests and the dead. All of these services are
contained in one volume. The second volume contains
the services of the twenty-four Sundays from the Sunday
of the Resurrection to the Sunday of the Festival of the
Cross. These are preceded by six services for the Week
of the White 1 immediately following Easter Sunday, in
commemoration of the Resurrection. The third volume
contains eight general services in commemoration of
the works of our Lord, in praise of the Holy Virgin and
the saints, and in commemoration of the dead. These
services are recited on the Sundays following the Festi-
val of the Cross, up to the Sunday of the Consecration
of the Church.

These service books were methodically compiled
and arranged by St. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708). According
to many old manuscripts, written on parchment in the
Estrangelo script and dating back to the period from
the ninth century to the thirteenth, Jacob of Edessa
wrote eight orders for the Sundays following the Resur-
rection; their cycle was to be repeated three times. In
the fifteenth century, however, they were supplemented
by sixteen more services, selected from the collection of
chorals and hymns.

A single service consists of the prayers of the vespers,
the nocturnes, the mourning prayer, and the prayer at
the third hour. The nocturnal prayer is celebrated at
two times, during which hymns selected from St. Ephraim
and others are chanted and sometimes interspersed
with some supplicatory hymns by Rabula, metropolitan
of Edessa.

Traditionally the Syrians had two distinct orders, or
rites: the Western rite, which was universal in the dio-
ceses under the direct jurisdiction of the Patriarchal
See; and the Eastern, which was used by the dioceses
under thejurisdiction of the Maphrianate See ofTakrit.
The first was compiled according to the traditions of
Antioch, Edessa, the famous Monastery of Qinnesrin,
and Melitene; the second, according to the tradition of
Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Takrit. The Western order is

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

characterized by brevity and by prose songs, called the
“Greek Canons,” used at every Sunday and festival, and
chanted according to eight melodies. They were written
by Jacob of Edessa, Andrew, bishop of Crete (d. 700),
Cosmas, and John of Damascus (d. 750). The latter
three are Greeks whose hymns were translated by the
Syrians into their language because, according to Lazarus
bar Sobto, bishop of Baghdad, as quoted by Bar Hebraeus
in his Ethikon (part 5, chapter 4, p. 66), “they were
confined to general description of the acts of Christ our
Lord and avoided the theological arguments among
the Christian sects.” Manuscript 149 of Zafaran men-
tions that this translation was done in Edessa and was
named for that city. To this translation some of our
Doctors added hymns similar to those composed by
former authors; which were called the “Syrian Canons,”
among which are the eight traditional canons and
others written in commemoration of St. Severus.

The Eastern rite, which is universally used in Iraq, is
marked by its lengthiness, the use of a great number of
Psalms, the madrashes (metrical hymns), and the prose
hymns of St. Severus, which are chanted particularly at
the festivals of the Nativity of our Lord and the Resurrec-
tion. According tojacob of Bartulli 2 the service book of
this rite was commonly known as the “Book ofHudhro,” 3
into which the monk David bar Paul inserted maniths
(prose hymns) around 780 A. D. In a commentary note
at the beginning of his letters, Bar Paul states, “when
David and his disciple Zacharias returned toDayr (Mon-
astery) of Khanushia from the land of the West (west of
the Euphrates), he carried with him one hundred and
seven ty church hymns, composed by Mar Severus, which
were unknown in the lands of the East. He also intro-
duced to these lands different canons and collecdons,
to be chanted daily at the close of the nocturnal service.
He also added a psalm and the Lord’s Prayer to be
recited in the morning, noon and night, after ‘Holy
thou art God.’” These prayers were introduced in the
year 1090 (of the Greek calendar, which is 780 A.D.)
and after.

It is our assumption that the compilation of Eastern
rites, whose authors we do not know, began in the early
part of the seventh century and continued to the middle
of the twelfth century. Many authors apparently con-
tributed to its composition until it assumed its present
form. However, we are informed about those who estab-
lished and organized it. They are:

1) Malphan (doctor) Sabroy, the great-grandfather
of David bar Paul (ca. 630 A.D.) and his two sons, Ram
Yeshu and Gabriel, who wrote the Basilica, 4 (anthems)
and the canticles for both choirs for Palm Sunday and
the Passion Week. They also wrote a service book which
had been used in the towns specifically, in order to
undermine the conceitedness of the Nestorians, as
Sabroy himself states in his letter to Bishop Yuhanna on
the diacritical points which occur in the Holy Scrip-
tures.

2) Denha III of Harran, the maphrian of the East
(912-932) . He was described in the commemoration of
the Eastern Fathers as the author of qalas metrical
(hymns), and was well-versed in church music.

3) Basilius IV, bar QubadofTakrit (1046-1069), who
was an author of qalas (metrical hymns) and church
canons. 5

Many copies of service books have survived. They
were mostly written from the ninth to the thirteenth
centuries in an elegant Estrangelo script, on vellum or
paper. They are preserved in the libraries of London,
Paris and Boston (see earlier note) aswellas the churches
of Diyarbakr, Inhil, Amas, Meddo and Basibrina in Tur
Abdin, the Zafaran Monastery, the Monastery of St.
Mark’s in Jerusalem, Edessa, and Mosul. Other manu-
scripts in the western script, written from the thirteenth
century to the present, are preserved in the libraries of
Berlin, Egypt, Diyarbakr, the Monastery of St. Matthew
(Mar Matta), St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem, the
churches of Mosul and Qaraqosh, Mardin, Aleppo,
Damascus, Beirut, Hisn Kifa, Meddo, Basibrina, Hims,
Sadad, our Patriarchate’s library, and other places. In
1911 we were granted the opportunity to look through
most of these manuscripts in the monasteries and
churches ofTur Abdin. We have no information, though,
of what was lost from these manuscripts during the last
war and what remained.

The service book used in the winter season is fol-
lowed by the order of the three days’ fasting of Nineveh.
At one time this fast was observed for five days in the
lands of the East, as has been mentioned in a copy at the
library of the Church of the Virgin (al-Tahira) in Mosul,
transcribed by the priest Joseph Khamis of Sinjar in
1269, and in the copy at St. Matthew’s Monastery,
transcribed by Abu al-Faraj ibn Mansur in 1241. These
two copies also contain the orders for the commemora-
tion of priests, the strangers, and the dead, on the
Fridays in the three weeks preceding Lent; these orders
belong exclusively to the Eastern rite.

SECTION SIX

The Service Book of Principal Feasts and
The Festivals of Saints

This volume comprises the principal feasts of the
Nativity of our Lord, the Circumcision, the Baptism, the
Presentation of our Lord in the Temple, Palm Sunday,
the Resurrection, the Ascension, the Pentecost, the
Transfiguration, and the Festival of the Cross.

Included also are the seven feasts of the Virgin, i.e.,
the Annunciation of the Virgin, the Hailing of Mary at
our Lord’s birth, our Lady of the Sowing, our Lady of
the Harvest, the festival of the first church built in
Athrib (Yathrib), named after the Virgin, the Nativity of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the Virgin Mary, her Entrance into the Temple, and her
Assumption.

These are followed by the feasts of the Apostles,
saints and male and female martyrs, who are: Mar Addai
the Apostle; Mar Abhai the martyr; Mar Sergius and Mar
Bacchus; the Maccabees; the martyr Shamuni (Salumi)
and her sons, Mar Asya and Mar Isaiah the ascetics; Mar
Jacob, the Persian martyr who was cut to pieces; Mar
Jacob of Saruj; Barbara the martyr; Mar Zakhi (Nicolas) ,
bishop of Mira in Greece; Mar Bahnam, his sister Sarah,
and his forty martyr companions; Mar Gabriel, bishop
of Qartamin; Mar Samuel and Mar Simon the ascetics;
the Infants of Bethlehem and John the Baptist; Mar
Stephen, the protomartyr and head of the deacons; Mar
Antonius; Barsoumand Aaron the ascetics; Mar Severus
of Antioch; Mar Ephraim, the Doctor of the Church;
Theodorus, the martyr of Ephchacta; Mar Habib, the
deacon martyr; Abgar, the King of Edessa; the Elevation
of the Cross; the forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Sivas); Mar
George the martyr; St.John the Evangelist; Marjacob of
Nisibin; Mar Ottel the Ascetic; Saints Peter and Paul, the
chief Apostles; the Twelve Apostles and St. Thomas the
evangelist; Anba Karas the ascetic; Mar Cyriacus and his
mother Julitta, and their companions; the martyrs, the
ascetic Mar Malke, Mar Julian, Mar Matta and Mar Musa
the Abyssinian; Cosmas and Demyan the martyrs; the
prophet Elijah and Mar Zayna the martyr, bishop of
Baremman; Mar Ahudemeh, metropolitan of the East;
the Golden Friday, in commemoration of the miracles
of the Apostles Peter and Paul; Daniel the ascetic;
Yuhanna (John) bar Najjarin and his martyred sister,
Mar Qawma the stylite ascetic, and the two ascetic
brothers Mar Ibrahim and Mar Marun, 1 Febronia the
martyr nun; Mar Simon the Stylite; the martyrs Agripas
and Lubernitus and their companions; the martyr monks
Shamunaand Guiryya (Gabriel); Romanus the martyr;
the Egyptian ascetics; the Persian confessor Mar Demet;
Mar Abhai the ascetic bishop; the prophets; one of the
saints, one of the martyrs and one of the ascetics.
Needless to say, some of these saints are commemo-
rated in their native countries or in the countries where
they lived an ascetic life. 2

SECTION SEVEN

Sendee Books of The Lent and Passion Week

The first service book contains the daily prayers of
Lent, beginning from the evening of the first Sunday of
Lent, 1 (Bermun) known as the Sunday of Cana of
Galilee to the seventh Sunday which is the Palm Sunday.
At present the Lent prayers are recited three times, in
the morning, at noon, and in the evening, except on
Saturdays and Sundays.

The second service book contains the prayers of
Passion Week, from Monday night until the ninth hour

of the Great Saturday of Annunciation. It is a large
book, different from other service books by virtue of its
great length and itsdifferent madrashes (metrical hymns),
especially those prescribed for the two nocturnal ser-
vices. On the day of Maunday Thursday and the Friday
of the Passion (Friday of the Crucifixion ) , the nocturnal
prayer consists of four or five services. This service book
is distinguished for its supplicatory verses, absolutely
eloquent and elaborate, usually chanted with touching
tunes, especially the madrashsung on the tune “Rise up,
O Paul,” composed by Jacob of Edessa. Similar songs of
passion also came from the pen of this same erudite
man.

During Lent, according to the Eastern rite, and after
each service in Passion Week, a discourse or homily by
either St. Ephraim, Jacob of Saruj, or Chrysostom is
delivered. These homilies of Chrysostom are undoubt-
edly translated from his collection of homilies of the
Father of the Church. The consecration of the Holy
Chrism also contains an eloquent song by Lazarus bar
Sobto, metropolitan of Baghdad; however, the recita-
tion of this song was supererogatory. 2 This rite also
includes a medium-sized book containing eight services
of the Christmas Fasting, known to Easterners as the
Subbar, i.e., the Annunciation of the Nativity of the Lord
Christ. These services are usually repeated three times.
We have found three copies of these services; one in the
Church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin, where they were
used for a long time around 1 700, the second in Jerusa-
lem (transcribed in 1675), and the third in the Monas-
tery of St. Elias (Elijah) at the village of Hbab in Tur
Abdin.

SECTION EIGHT

Husoys (Propitiatory Prayers) For Sundays,
Feasts, Lent and Passion Week, and Other
Occasions

The Husoyos are propitiatory prayers in prose form
recited in certain times. They are of two parts: the
proemium, or the introductory prayer, usually brief;
and the Sedro, which contains the text of the prayer and
is usually longer than the proemium. The propitiatory
prayer, whether recited in the morning or evening, is
preceded by an introductory prayer and followed by the
prayer of the incense. Frequently, the Sedro is recited
jointly with a concluding prayer a usage by which the
Orthodox Church has exclusively distinguished itself.

The propitiatory prayer, recited by the priests in
their particular times and days, contains praise to God,
who bestowed upon man the grace of existence and
salvation. It also contains a description of Christ’s be-
neficence and love toward mankind, which He saved
from eternal damnation and brought to the light of
truth after it had been in darkness. The priest usually

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

concludes this prayer by asking the forgiveness of the
sins of the people, and imploring God to keep the
shepherds of the church, the priests, the deacons, and
the different categories of believers, to save them from
afflictions and grant them and their dead, who slept in
the hope of the faith and the resurrection, His abun-
dant mercies.

In the husoyos prescribed for principal feasts, the
authors describe the holy Sacraments in which they
were performed, and which led to the glorification of
these feasts. They frequently elaborated on the Ortho-
dox doctrines, such as the principles of the belief in the
Trinity and monotheism, the two Sacraments of the
Incarnation and Redemption, and the Sacraments of
the church and their noble symbols, in order that these
might become firmly established in the minds of the
worshippers. In the days of fasting, the authors of these
expiatory prayers exhort the believers to live up to the
principle of fasting by comporting themselves in a
manner free from sin, while holding fast to repentance.
In the festivals of Saints, they commemorate their
struggles, praise their virtues, and ask for their interces-
sion. In commemorating the dead, they ask for their
forgiveness and mercy. Finally, in the administration of
the Sacraments of the church, the authors confine
themselves to the description of the Sacraments and the
discussion of related matters.

This type of prayerwas contrived in the last decade of
the seventh century byjohn III, patriarch of Antioch,
known as John of the Sedras (after the second part of
the husoyo\. Soon this prayer spread tremendously;
while in the beginning there were one or two husoyos for
special occasions, or for undesignated times, they were
gradually increased until there were as many as five for
only one Sunday or feast. Apparently church scholars
followed the lead of the patriarch in composing these
prayers. Husoyos were appointed as follows: one for
Sunday evening, two for the first and second nocturnal
services, one for the morning service, and the last for
the third-hour prayer. In the church of Tur Abdin we
found precious old copies of husoyos^ with the names of
their thirty-seven authors affixed on the margin. These
authors are of three categories: the excellent, the me-
diocre, and the bad.

The first category includes:

1) John, patriarch of Antioch (d. 648);

2) Marutha, maphrian of Takrit (d. 649);

3) Severus II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 683);

4) Athanasius II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 686);

5) Severus bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman (d.
903);

6) Athanasius, bishop of Qallisura (d. 983);

7) Patriarchjohn Xbar Shushan (d. 1072);

8) Said bar Sabuni, metropolitan of Melitene (d.
1095);

9) Dionysius bar Modyana, metropolitan ofMelitene
(d. 1120);

10) Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1171);

11) Michael the Great, patriarch of Antioch (d.
1199);

12) Ibrahim, metropolitan of Amid, Edessa and
Talbsam (d. 1207);

13) Basilius III or IV, metropolitan of Qartamin (d.
1254);

14) John bar Madani, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1263);

15) The ascetic monk Abu Nasr of Bartulli (d. 1290).
The authors of this category wrote most of the husoyos

mentioned in the oldest manuscripts. Abu Nasr was
distinguished for being the author of ninety four husoyos.
However, quite a large number of these husoyos are of
unknown authorship.

The second category comprises:

1) Gabriel of Bartulli, metropolitan of thejazira (d.
1300);

2) The monk Yeshu bar Khayrun (d. 1335);

3) The monk Saliba bar Khayrun (d. 1340);

4) Tuma (Thomas) of Ilah, the stylite ascetic;

5) Metropolitan Abu al-Wafa of Hisn Kifa;

6) Yusuf (Joseph) bar Gharib, metropolitan of Amid
(d. 1360);

7) Patriarch Ibrahim bar Gharib (d. 1412);

8) The priest Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425);

9) The priest Simon of Amid (d. 1452);

10) Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d, 1454);

11) The monkMalke Saqo (d. 1490);

12) The monk Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1490);

13) The priest Addai of Basibrina (d. 1502);

14) The monk David of Hims (d. 1500);

15) Metropolitan Sergius of Hah (d. 1508);

16) Yusuf (Joseph) the Iberian, metropolitan of
Jerusalem.

The third category includes:

1) Aziz of Faf (d. 1473);

2) Patriarch Masud of Zaz (d. 1512);

3) Bishop Simon (?);

4) Yusuf (Joseph) ofHbab (?);

5) John ofMardin, metropolitan of Jerusalem (d.
1577);

6) The chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul (d. 1783).
Some of these authors composed only one or two

husoyos; on the other hand, some of the husoyos were
mistakenly ascribed to the priest Samuel (the disciple of
St. Barsoum) Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, and
John bar Aphtonya.

The husoyos comprise six volumes, five of which are
very large books containing about six hundred and fifty
husoyos. The first volume, the service book for winter,
includes the period from the Sunday of the Consecra-
tion of the Church - which is also the first day of the
church year - to the Sunday of the Dead. The second
volume consists of the husoyos of Lent, up to Palm
Sunday. The third volume contains the husoyos for
Passion Week, from Monday night until the ninth hour
of the Saturday of Annunciation. It also includes a

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

husoyo for each service of the five days of Passion Week,
and four for the evening of the Friday of Crucifixion
(Good Friday) . The fourth volume, which is the service
book for the summer, includes the husoyosoi the twenty-
four Sundays of the Resurrection, beginning with the
daily husoyos of the week immediately following the
great Sunday of Easter. The fifth volume is set aside for
major feasts, as well as the festivals of the Virgin Mary,
the Martyrs, and the Saints. The sixth volume contains
eight husoyos for remembering the Dispensation of our
Lord Christ in general, known as the mdabronuth. The
Ishhim (Service book for regular week-days) also con-
tains seven brief husoyos recited between the services.
Another small book in the church of Mosul contains
brief daily husoyos, privately recited on certain days of
the week for the commemoration of the Virgin, the
cross, the saints, the martyrs, and for repentance for the
priests and the dead. Other orders of the mysteries have
special husoyos whose authors are unknown to us.

The style of the majority of the husoyos, particularly
those written by authors of the first category, is lucid and
eloquent Other husoyos^ especially those written specifi-
cally for the Holy Mass byjohn of the Sedras, Athanasius
II, and Jacob of Edessa, are distinguished by their
remarkable style, richness of meaning, and beautiful
and smooth phrasing, which arrests the heart. To these
should be added the husoyos by Moses bar Ki fa, John bar
Shushan, Athanasius of Qallisura, Said bar Sabuni, and
Abu Nasr of Bartulli. The husoyos of Bar Sabuni reveal
his profound knowledge of the language and profi-
ciency in philosophy, which appear vividly in his style.
His mastery of eloquent expression enables him to
subjugate the language to his own whim. If it were not
for the few Greek expressions which he uses in imitation
of the philosopher’s method, one might conclude that
he is among the most famous masters of styles. Likewise,
the style of Abu Nasr attests to his rich subject matter,
writing ability, and literary artistic elegance.

Quite different is the style of the authors from the
second category, despite their smoothness, clarity and
eloquence. The fault of some of these authors, like Abu
al-Wafa, Yeshu of Basibrina, and Joseph the Iberian, is
their love of foreign terminologies, which evidently
made their style stilted. Another fluent writer for whom
the language became pliable wasjoseph bar Gharib. His
counterpart. Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl, had the same
literary qualities except for the few Greek expressions
he used. As for the remaining authors, their style was
marked by mediocrity. Jacob of Qutrubul, for example,
exaggerated the use of forced style and poor rhymed
prose in the five husoyos he wrote in commemoration of
Malke the ascetic. The copy containing these husoyos
was consigned to a church in Amid and was neglected.
Other authors of husoyos forced the style of supplicatory
prayers and made them alphabetical forward and back-
ward, while some others inserted in them rhymed phrases
whose combinations of letters indicate their names.

No small number of husoyoswere composed and used
in the author’s native land or the land neighboring it,
especially the husoyos of the later authors of Tur Abdin.
These writers were fascinated by the description of the
life stories of the known ascetics and martyrs in their
country. The husoyos of the priest Simon of Amid were
never used, but remained in the copy in his own hand-
writing. In the library of Boston, in the United States, we
found a volume (MS. 4031) 1 containing husoyos for the
period from the Sunday of the consecration of the
Church to the Festival of the Cross, written in a thick,
elegant Estrangelo script. The number of these is com-
plete and corresponds with the five services of worship.
This MS. was completed in the tenth or eleventh cen-
tury, but apparently did not come into widespread use
in the East. Therefore, Abu Nasr of Bartulli wrote most
of the husoyos, for the nocturnal and third-hour services
and raised the number of the services of worship to
seven. These husoyos were contained by all the copies
which we have read in the churches of Iraq,Jazira, and
others.

The oldest copy of the husoyos is the Paris MS. 70,
called the Service Book of Priests. Completed in 1059,
it is a very small book, written in beautiful Estrangelo
script; it consists of three liturgies as well as husoyos for
the whole year, followed by preliminary supplicatory
prayers. In the British Museum the ancient MS. 14494
contains some husoyos 4 incense prayers, and supplica-
tions recited between the parts of the Psalms. Some of
these prayers were alphabetically arranged, while oth-
ers were written by Cyriacus, metropolitan of Talla at
the end of the sixth century. Thejerusalem MS. 55 (St.
Mark’s Monastery) contains a Sacerdotal written on
paper in a good Estrangelo script by the priest Said
Shamli, the son of priest Yuhanna (John) of Hisn Ziyad,
in 1171. This Sacerdotal contains random husoyos for
Epiphany and the Sundays thereafter, Lent, Passion
Week, the Resurrection, the Ascension, Pentecost, the
mdabronuth or Dispensation of our Lord, the Apostles,
Saints, the Assumption of the Virgin, festivals of some
Saints, namely St. John, St. Gurgis (George) and St.
Barsoum and others. It also contains diverse supplica-
tory prayers, recited before or after the husoyos, or
between the marmiths or psalms, as well as husoyos for
fasting, written in a Western script. The Paris MS. 167
contains a volume of husoyos in the handwriting of
Patriarch Michael the Great, dated 1190, for use from
the festival of the consecration of the church to the
Pentecost, interspersed with the festivals of the Virgin,
the Apostles, the Doctors, and the Martyrs. It contains
copious prayers including groups of one, two or three
husoyos for some festival days and Sundays, a few other
husoyos for Lent, and one husoyo for each day of Passion
Week except Good Friday, which has three. These
husoyos differ sharply in the number of their introduc-
tory prayers and texts, and have only one Sedra for the
dispensation of our Lord and repentance, in addition

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

to the compline and vespers prayers.

In the Monastery of the Cross, near the village of
Defna in Tur Abdin, we found a manuscript (tran-
scribed in 1555) containing onehundred seven ty husoyos.
Other manuscript in the village of Meddo, transcribed
between 1460 and 1480, contains three hundred and
seven husoyos which fill four thousand medium-sized
pages. Indeed, this volume is a great literary treasure
which, because of its style, has a considerable place in
Syriac literature.

Moreover, when the Arabic language spread through-
out the lands of the Syrians and supplan ted Syriac, some
of the later authors (from the end of the fifteenth
century onwards) were forced to translate the majority
of husoyos into Arabic. Thus a monk, David of Hims,
translated some of them, sometimes well and some-
times in a mediocre style. Those who followed, espe-
cially in the eighteenth century, rendered the husoyos in
very imperfect, poor Arabic and even distorted their
meanings.

SECTION NINE

The Orders of Baptism, The Benediction of
Marriage, The Holy Unction and of Repentence

The Syrian Church has a service book containing
prayers for the order of the Sacrament of Baptism. This
order has two forms, one for the baptism of boys, and
the other for girls. Some prayers of this order are
ascribed to the Saints Clemis and Dionysius the
Areopagite, and others to St. Severus of Antioch. Our
long service book mentions that these prayers were
based on the order of Baptism by Severus of Antioch,
translated from the Greek by Jacob of Edessa. This has
also been confirmed by John of Dara, Moses Bar Kifa,
Bar Salibi, and Bar Hebraeus. An old manuscript in the
British Museum shows that the Order of Baptism of
Severus was translated (from Greek) by Paul, metro-
politan of Talla. 1 It contains two services, one for the
neophyte, and the other for the baptized.

We have another short order recited during the
child’s sickness and an even shorter one, probably not
more than two pages, written by either Philoxenus of
Mabug or Severus of Antioch, for baptizing the very
seriously ill child. In manuscript 17128 of the British
Museum we found an Order of Baptism by Timothy of
Alexandria (457-477). The Jerusalem manuscript 127
contains a short order of about ten pages, written by
Patriarch John bar Shushan and used in the event of
imminent death. A manuscript in the Zafaran Monas-
tery contains an exposition by Severus of Antioch of the
order of Baptism in three pages. The Church of Mosul
has a special short order, different from the Western
order, and undoubtedly was written by the Eastern

fathers. I have also seen in the village of Bartulli an order
abridged by a maphrian, most likely Bar Hebraeus. The
order for the Benediction of Marriage and the cer-
emony of coronation, which had been compiled, ar-
ranged and revised by St. Jacob of Edessa and other
doctors of the Church, 2 contains two services; the first is
the betrothal prayer, or the Benediction of the wedding
ring; the second is the Benediction of Marriage. This
order is followed by another special order for the
marriage of a widowed spouse. At the close of the
fourteenth century, the priest Isaiah of Basibrina made
this order separate from that for persons previously
unmarried; the commentary which he wrote on it has
since been incorporated into the introduction to this
rite. A rather long order of marriage, different from our
Western order, is used in Mosul and its neighboring
churches.

The mystery of unction, administered to the sick and
the penitentwho demand it, has an order consisting of
five services concerning forgiveness and repentance,
recited by the priest over the oil used for anointing the
sick. Another short order, comprising a husoyo (propi-
tiatory prayer), one lesson from the Gospels, and a few
verses of prayers recited over the sick, is still preserved
in the village of Hafar.

We also have a general order recited during the
confession of sins. After the penitent has confessed his
sins to the bishop or priest and listened to his advice, he
kneels down with his hands crossed, while the priest
recites the order which consists of the unyana (an-
them), husoyo (propitiatory prayer), and Qala (hymn),
scriptural lessons and a bouth, a supplicatory prayer.
Then the priest exhorts the confessor to repeat the
canon of confession, after which, while placing his hand
on the head of the confessor, he recites the prayer of
absolution and forgiveness. An ancient copy of this
order is preserved in the Vatican MS. 5 1 , transcribed by
the monk Abu al-Faraj of Amid from the copy which had
been arranged and vocalized by Patriarch Michael the
Great. Another copy is extant in Amid. This order,
however, ceased to be used some time ago because of its
length, and was replaced by the short prayer of absolu-
tion.

SECTION TEN

Order of The Offices of Ordination and The
Administration of Sacraments by The Clergy

This huge service book contains:

1 ) The prayers of the various offices of ordination for
low and high church ranks, such as the offices of psaltis
or singer, anagnostes or reader, hypodiaconus or
subdeacon, deacon, archdeacon, priest, chorepiscopus,
abbot, periodeutes or visitor, bishop, metropolitan,
maphrian or catholicos, and Patriarch, as well as the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

order for assuming monastic habit of monks and
nuns, according to the tradition of the holy moun-
tain of Edessa, as is mentioned by the two manu-
scripts in Jerusalem and Paris, 1 whose canons were
enacted by Metropolitan John Said bar Sabuni.* It
also contains the Benediction for deacons, abbots
and church stewards.

2) The order for consecration of churches, new
altars, and tablets for the altar.

3) The order for consecration of baptismal oil and
unction. This order has two versions, the long and the
short; an old copy of the shortversion is preserved in our
library (at Hims) .

4) The order for consecration of the Sacrament of
the Holy Chrism, which is the exclusive right of the
Patriarch of Antioch.

5) Prayers for the penitents and heretics who rejoin
the Orthodox Church. To these later was added the
order by which the ascetics assume the Leather Habit,
translated from the Ethiopian language into Syriac and
revised by Joseph the Iberian, metropolitan of Jerusa-
lem (d. 1537).

6) The order for installing a new bishop.*

Ordinations are preceded by instructions for the

elect priests and deacons, according to which the or-
dained states that he will follow the teachings of the
fathers and doctors of the catholic church and obey the
Patriarch of Antioch and the metropolitan of his dio-
cese, and renounces the heretics and dissenters, enu-
merating them one by one from the Apostolic era to the
ninth century. This statement of creed has two versions:
a long one comprising ten pages, of which two copies,
written in the beginning of the thirteenth century, are
preserved in our library and in the Vatican MS. 51; and
a shorter, more commonly used one written byjacob,
metropolitan of Miyafarqin in the middle of the tenth
century.

The new bishop also reads a statement of creed
drawn by Patriarch Cyriacus in which he confesses the
Church’s creed of faith, pledges allegiance to the doc-
tors of the church and excommunicates the heretics,
and declares his obedience to the patriarch of Antioch.
The copy of this order was completed in 806. 4 At the
same time, the patriarch provides the new bishop with
a statement called Sostatikon, or the diploma of investi-
ture, in which he invests him with episcopal powers to
administer his diocese and orders his congregation to
obey him. In Meddo, in Tur Abdin, we found the oldest
copy of this order, written in the thirteenth century and
containing the investiture of Basilius, metropolitan of
Khabura, by Ignatius III, patriarch of Antioch in 1231,
and signed by John II, Bar Madani, maphrian of the
East, and by four bishops. 5 Our copy is a reproduction
of this one. Later, however, this diploma of investiture
was translated into Arabic; we possess two copies of the
translation, completed in 1768 and 1806.

To the order of the consecration of the patriarch,

Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid, added a homily,
which he delivered during the ceremony of enthroning
Michael the Great (at the close of 1166); another
homily on the assumption of the monastic habit by
monks and initiates written by Moses bar Kifa, was
finished by Bar Salibi. The order of the consecration of
the holy Chrism is followed by two anonymous homilies,
one of which was recited after the ceremony. This
ceremony is also followed by a heptasyllabic discourse
chanted by the arch-deacons in praise of the officiating
dignitary, and another dodecasyllabic discourse in which
the bishop blesses the congregation. A copy of this
metrical discourse is extant in MS. 109 in our library at
Jerusalem.

The oldest manuscript of the office of ordination is
the copy of Patriarch Michael the Great, dated 1190.®
This illustrious church dignitary was the last to revise
and arrange the orders of the offices of ordination,
which had been in a state of confusion. His copy is most
reliable. Another two copies are extant in our church in
the town of Mamurat al-Aziz; one of them was com-
pleted in either 1190 or 1200, and the second was
transcribed and commented upon by the bishop John
David of Amid in 1203. Two other magnificent copies
were transcribed by the deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli in
1300, 7 at the request of Gabriel, bishop of thejazira.
Two more ancient copies are extant in our Library,
together with an elegant copy transcribed by Joseph,
metropolitan of Jerusalem, reproduced from the copy
of the monk Abu al-Faraj of Amid, the secretary of
Patriarch Michael. 8 Another copy, in the handwriting of
Patriarch Nuh, dated 1506, is available in the Library at
Jerusalem. 9

SECTION ELEVEN
Service Book For Principal Feasts

The Syrians have a special service book for principal
feasts called the madhedhan. It contains the Orders for
the Nativity of our Lord, the Order for the consecration
of water on the Epiphany, the Order for the Monday of
Lent called the Monday of Forgiveness, the Order for
the mid-Lent Festival of the Cross, the Order for the
Consecration of Branches on Palm Sunday, the Festival
of Lights or the Night of Entrance into the Heavenly
Chamber, the Order for the Washing of Feet on the
Thursday of Passion Week, the Burial Service of the
Cross on Good Friday, 1 the Order for Peace on Easter
morning, the Order for the Adoration of the Cross on
Pentecost, and the Order for the Benediction of the
Cross.

The Eastern rite contains hymns chanted in the
festivals commemorating Simon the Aged and the Pre-
sentation of our Lord in the Temple. The Beth Gaz
(Treasure of Melodies) of the Ayn Ward, written in

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1468, mentions the Benediction of the Cross according
to the custom of the Church of the Forty Martyrs in
Mardin. Also, the service book of the principal feasts of
the Monastery of Mar Awgayn (Eugene) contains the
Benediction of the Cross used in the festivals of the
Virgin and the saints.

The Beth Gazoi thejerusalem Library (MS. 62, dated
1569), mentions that the order for the consecration of
water (on Epiphany day) was written by Severus, patri-
arch of Antioch, but revised and vocalized by Jacob of
Edessa. According tojacob of Edessa, the first prayer for
the consecration of water in the festival of the Epiphany,
beginning “Great thou art O Lord and wonderful are
thy works,” was composed by Proclus, bishop of a dio-
cese of Cyprus. And when St. Epiphanius, metropolitan
of Cyprus, read this prayer in 404 A.D., he admired it
and expanded it. This prayer exists in the Byzantine rite
because its author, St. Proclus, lived in the middle of the
fourth century, notin the seventh, as Lucian has errone-
ously stated in his book The Christian Orient. Although
the old British Museum manuscript 14494, written on
vellum, mentions that the author of the consecration of
water on the Epiphany was Proclus of Constantinople
(d. 444), yet the testimony here about Jacob of Edessa
is more thorough and accurate. 2

In his comment on the service book of principal
feasts in Bartulli, on January 30, 1282, Bar Hebraeus
states that in the Eastern rite the deacon recites, at the
consecration of water, the prayer for the descent of the
Holy Ghost. He was annoyed, and for eighteen years
kept patient, until the clergy convinced of their error,
agreed to follow the Western rite in this case. 3

In an old copy (of this service book) in the handwrit-
ing of deacon Dawud (David) Yusuf al-Misri (the Egyp-
tian) , dated 1403, we are informed that Said bar Sabuni,
metropolitan of Melitene, compiled an Order for the
consecration of Branches on Palm Sunday and that he
corrected and vocalized the Order of the Adoration of
the Pentecost. 4

What should be noted here is that the traditions and
customs of performing the rituals and prayers differed
in the countries of the Syrians. The practiced customs
were called traditions or perhaps better still “Orders.”
The most important of these were the Order of Edessa,
the Order of the Monastery of Qinnesrin, the Order of
Malatya (Melitene), the Order of the Monastery of Mar
Barsoum, and the Order of the East practised in Takrit
and Mosul, the Order of Mardin and the Monastery of
Mar Hananya, the order of Amid, the order of the
Monastery of Qartamin, the order of Tur Abdin, the
order of Mesopotamia, the order of the upper Jazira
situated on the river Khabur. Also, the Monastery of
Mar Abhai, the Monastery ofNatfa (Qatra) were some-
times in this regard added to the Monastery of Mar
Hananya.

In his comment on the Eastern Rite or Order men-
tioned once before, Bar Hebraeus states that during his

occupation of the See of Takrit he discovered many
differences between the Eastern and the Western or-
ders. But he found in the arrangement of the Eastern
Order with its diverse forms and divisions an arresting
beauty which made him admit to the excellence of its
authors. He only criticized the specific prayer for the
benediction of the water in the Feast of the Epiphany
mentioned before.

In order to give an idea of the Orders of the principal
feasts as well as of the different traditions used in
performing the rituals, we should quote the Beth Gaz
compiled by Simon, metropolitan of Ayn Ward as an
illustration:

“To begin with, we have the Order of the Nativity
according to the tradition of the Church of Forty Mar-
tyrs in Mardin; the Order of the Epiphany revised by
Jacob of Edessa and preceded by an explanatory note by
George Bishop of the Arabs and followed by a comment
of Bar Hebraeus. (This Order has been arranged ac-
cording to the tradition of the Monastery of Mar
Barsoum, the Monastery of Mar Hananya and the Mon-
astery ofNatfa or Strangers as copied from the manu-
script of Rabban Saliba Khayrun (al-Shaykh) in 1340
which in turn was transcribed from the copy of Patri-
arch Michael the Great) . Then, the Order of the Presen-
tation of Our Lord in the Temple according to the
tradition of Mardin; the Order of Forgiveness for the
Lent; a second Order according to the tradition of
Mardin; the Order of the Consecration of Branches
transcribed from the copy of Rabban Saliba from the
copy of Patriarch Michael the Great; the Order of Lights
according to the Edessan tradition; the celebration of
the Holy Eucharist on Christmas eve as well as on the
evening of Thursday of the Passion Week; the Order of
Good Friday (the Crucifixion) according to the tradi-
tion of the Forty Martyrs Church in Mardin; a second
Order according to the tradition of the Monastery of St.
Gabriel in Tur Abdin; the Order of Easter according to
the traditions of the Monasteries of Mar Barsoum and
Mar Hananya, another order for Easter according to
the beautiful established tradition of the Monastery of
St. Gabriel.”

Simon of Ayn Ward also alluded to an Eastern ritual-
istic tradition in the festival of the Ascension according
to which the deacon lifts up the paten and the priest the
cup during the final elevation of the Mysteries. The
custom is still used in Mosul and all of Iraq until this day.

SECTION TWELVE
Funeral Service Books

The Funeral Service Book, or the fanqith order of
burials, 1 or the handbook of burials, 2 is of two parts. The
first contains the funeral service for deacons, priests,
bishops, maphrians and patriarchs. It is comprised of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

eight services, all of which are recited in the funeral of
patriarchs, seven for the maphrians, six for the bishops,
five for the priests and four for the deacons. This first
part was compiled and arranged byjacob of Edessa. But
an eloquent and passionate metrical hymn composed
byjohn bar Andrew (d. 1156), metropolitan of Mabug,
and then ofTur Abdin was added to it in the middle of
the twelfth century. The oldest copy of this part is
contained in a magnificent vellum manuscript com-
pleted in the twelfth century too. 5 Another copy is in
London. 4 Attached with it is the order of the Funeral
Service of monks, three copies of which are in Boston,
St. Matthew’s Monastery and Qaraqosh, respectively.

The second part contains the funeral service for
laymen, namely children, young men and women, and
grown up men and women. Originally it contained one
service only, but today it is made up of three services,
each one of them special to these groups of laymen. In
fact, the above mentioned Boston MS. 5 contains four
times of prayers for each one of these services. In an old
fourteenth century manuscript in the handwriting of
Simon 6 it is mentioned that this second part was com-
piled and revised also byjacob of Edessa.

The funeral service consists of the chanting of psalms,
appropriate lessons from the Holy Bible, the chanting
of qalas a.nd madrashes (metrical hymn) as well as ghnizes
(prosaic mystic hymns), takhshejlos and husoyos (suppli-
catory songs and prayers) and a boutho (litany). The
funeral service for priests is usually concluded by a four-
syllabic hymn of excellent poetry, perhaps composed by
Asuna the disciple of St Ephraim which begins with:
“Thou hast created me whilst I was non existent, and as
thou hast created me have mercy on me.” The funeral
service for laymen is likewise concluded by a passional
metrical hymn by the same poet which begins thus:
“Our Lord shall come and raise the dead. I have been
separated from you my beloved ones, therefore, pray
for me in order to go and receive the Lord’s favor.”
There is a third metrical hymn by Asuna mentioned by
Anton of Takrit which begins thus: “My days have come
to an end.” These hymns which were called “the ancient
hymns” ceased to be used except by the churches of
Iraq. 7

An old funeral service book written in elegant fine
Estrangelo script in 823 and preserved in MS. 92 in the
Vatican contains the following: Thirty-one songs by St.
Ephraim, two of which begin thus: “I have rejoiced
when they told me” and “Farewell o earthly abode”
(both of which are used in the Eastern Rite), and
another hymn whose origin is unknown to us: “My days
have passed; ” metrical songs for different clerical ranks,
one of which is for bishops and begins with “who does
not rejoice,” and several metrical hymns by St. Ephraim
and St. Isaac together with hymns and canticles for the
funeral services for bishops, monks, deacons and stylite
ascetics. It also contains three consolatory discourses
for priests and deacons, two ofwhich are in prosaic form

and the third in metrical (composed by Asuna and
beginning: “Brethren, implore the King for me and
pray with tears for I am separated from you forever”) .

The ancient funeral service books contained metri-
cal hymns for the dead selected from the odes of Sts.
Ephraim and Isaac and Jacob of Saruj. Several manu-
scripts dealing with this subject shall be discussed later.
We have also found in Meddo in Tur Abdin an old
manuscript written in the thirteenth century which
mentions the different customs in conducting the fu-
neral sendees in T ur Abdin , Mardin , Malatya (Melitene) ,
Ani, 8 Syria, Palestine and other places. Another manu-
script with elegant script completed at the beginning of
the fifteenth century and preserved in our church in
Hamah contains a funeral service according to the
orders of Melitene, Hisn Ziyad and the northern coun-
tries. It also contains another funeral service for the
priest according to the order of Tur Abdin, from which
has been copied the new MS. 118 of the Jerusalem
library.

SECTION THIRTEEN
Choral Books

The Syrians collected their church hymns and praises
in a thick volume which they called Beth Gaz (The
Treasure of Melodies). It contains:

1. The Ishhim or service book for regular week day
prayers.

2. Acollection ofhymns called “Shahre,” or vigils to be
sung by “Shohure” or vigils in Latin and Spoutheyos in
Greek. These singers were greatly concerned about the
organization of the times of prayers. Their rank, how-
ever, followed that of the Psalters and, like priests and
deacons of different ranks, they were supervised by the
archdeacon. Their function is an old one in the church.
They were mentioned by Marutha of Miyafarqin in the
treatise, which he wrote between 408 and 410, ad-
dressed to Isaac the Catholicos of Ctesiphon. 1

This collection contained hymns for the praise of the
Virgin, the saints, and the martyrs, on repentance as
well as on a description of the Cross, on the Nativity of
Our Lord, the Resurrection and the commemoration
of the dead. These vigils are fifty-one in number and in
some manuscripts fifty-three. 2 Each one of them con-
sists of either four, six, or eight lines and sometimes
twenty-one, and even twenty-seven lines. Only a manu-
script transcribed by the bishop Bahnam of Arbo in
1568 exclusively contains one type of these songs called
Quqays which comprises sixty-seven lines. Other manu-
scripts state that these Quqays were composed by St.
Ephraim except for the famous Quqay composed by the
deacon Simon the Potter and his band of Potters. 5
However, it is incorrect to ascribe all these Quqays to St.
Ephraim, for the Potter (Simon) has composed many

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

lines of poetry and chorals of different meters similar to
those composed by ancient poets who are unknown to
us.

3. The madrashesor hymns composed by St. Ephraim,
which numbered five hundred, most of which are lost.
According to one source only forty-six or fifty madrashes
have survived, to other sources sixty-seven. One manu-
scriptalone mentions one hundred and seven madrashes.
Not all of the madrashes contain many lines, especially
those composed in commemoration of the Virgin, Saints,
etc. Those having a great number of lines cover the most
widely used hymns based on the eight tunes such as the
madrashes beginning with “This is the month,” “The
Father has written a message,” “Rise up, O Paul,” “Para-
dise,” and others. No doubt, church poets have fre-
quently composed their poems based on the madrashes
meters. But it would be difficult to distinguish the
madrashes composed in the early period by eloquent
poets from those of St. Ephraim. The madrashes of the
second period are easily distinguishable. The total num-
ber of lines of the fifty-one madrashes is nine hundred
and five lines.

4. The takhshejlos, or supplicatory hymns, number
three hundred, ofwhich we only have two hundred and
fifty-four. One manuscript enumerates only one hun-
dred and thirty of these prayers. 4 Scholars also differ on
the authors of these supplicatory hymns. To us, the
author was Rabula, bishop of Edessa (d. 435), while a
certain Beth Gaz mentions that they were written by St.
Ephraim as well as Rabula and arranged by Jacob of
Edessa. 5 According to another source the authors were
SL Ephraim, Rabula and later authors who added to
them their own takhsheftos . 6 Still another source main-
tains that they were composed by Rabula and others,
including Marutha of Takrit 7

5. The mawurbos or magnificats, is based on eight
tunes and consists of two hundred and seven lines.

6. The ghnizos (prosaic supplicatory hymns) which to
some scholars number seventy-two, to others eighty-
three or even one hundred and nineteen.

7. The mabranos or funeral songs, number one hun-
dred and seven, one of which was composed by Bar
Qiqi. 8

8. The shubahosor praises chanted during the admin-
istration of the Holy Communion.

9. The stikhunos or Stiches, hymns composed by Cyril
ofjerusalem (d. 386) and especially used in the order of
the consecration of the Holy Chrism and the clergy.

10. Stikharos or stichera, hymns composed by John
Chrysostom.

1 1 . The eqbos (short prayers usually follow the suppli-
catory prayer for incense) . They are eighty-one in num-
ber and have in some cases a refrain called kurakh, which
is changed antiphonally at the beginning of the evening
and during the nocturnal prayers.

12. Processional hymns for the circle of the year
which are mentioned only in an eastern Beth Gaz. 9

13. Sughithos, or canticles of hepta-syllabic meter.

14. Zumoros praises numbering seven hundred and
twenty-eight, attached with them, are the Jithghomos or
jubilation songs which are selected sections of the
psalms. The authors of these praises and jubilation
songs are unknown.

15. Inyonos, or anthems numbering thirty-seven, the
majority of which are composed by St. Ephraim. One
copy counts fifty-five of them.

16. The cathismatos or sessions numbering one hun-
dred and seven, especially those used on Sundays and
other festivals. It is said that they were translated from
the Greek. The Beth Gaz in the village of Bati of Tur
Abdin mentions that the cathismatos were composed by
St. Ephraim.

17. The manithos x prose hymns numbering more
than three hundred and seventy, two hundred and
ninety of which came from the pen of St. Severus of
Antioch. The rest were written by John bar Aphtonya,
John Psaltes and others. Choral books contained a
group of these hymns, one of which was written by
Barsoum, maphrian of the East (d. 1454) on the sinner
woman (in the Bible). 10

18. The Greek canons of eight tones mainly written
byjacob of Edessa, Andrew of Takrit, Cosmas andjohn
of Damascus. 11 Some of them were composed by Syrian
poets. These canons, which number thirty-four, com-
prised of seven hundred and fifty lines belong to the
orders of both Edessa and Melitene.

19. The bouthos or supplicatory hymns, are select
hymns composed by Sts. Ephraim, Isaac, Balai and
Jacob of Edessa. To these are attached the tbirtho, an
introductory verse recited before each supplicatory
hymn.

20. The karuzuthos or conciones, composed by later
poets especially David of Hims and Masud of Zaz to be
chanted before higher ranks of the clergy prior to the
reading of the Gospels. Because of their inferior com-
position and poor meaning they were dropped from
use.

21. Orders of the principal festivals.

22. The Eastern Intercession.

23. Diverse supplications.

24. The calendars or chronicles.

The oldest, largest and most significant copy of the
choral books is in the MS. 1 /5 at the Sharfa Monastery.
Another rare bulky copy, in the Monastery of St. Abraham
in Midyat, was unfortunately lost during World War I.
We have a comprehensive copy in our library (atHims) ,
which contains madrashes and other hymns as shall be
seen later. A short Beth Gazcon taining fifty-four madrashes,
most of which are made up of one or two lines, was
printed in the Zafaran Monastery in 191 3 and reprinted
in 1925.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

SECTION FOURTEEN
Prayer Boohs of Priests and Monks

Some of the Church fathers wrote different prayers
for the blessing of meals, fruits, fields, crops, homes,
children and the sick. They also wrote prayers for
reconciliation, for the driving away of harm, pestilences
and calamities and for confined women, etc. Of these
prayers, forty-five are extant in the Service Book of
Ordinations in the handwriting of Bishop Joseph the
Iberian. 1 They were compiled in a small book entitled
“The Priest’s Prayer Book.” The books of the Beth Gaz
also contain a group of these prayers.

Monks also have a small book containing a group of
supplicatory prayers which they recite daily during the
seven times of prayer. The purpose of these prayers is to
elevate the mind to God, contemplate His wonderful
works, praise Him and ask His forgiveness. Some of
these prayers are beautiful samples of eloquence and
rhetoric. They were mainly written by the ascetics
Ephraim, Ibrahim of Qaydun, Macarius the Egyptian,
Gregory the residen t of Cyprus (who wrote forty prayers) ,
Isaac, John the Less, John the Apocalyptic, Saraphion,
Paul bishop of Cnotus, Simon the Stylite, Shanudin,
Isaiah and others. They were also written by Doctors of
the Church like Athanasius, Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen,
John Chrysostom, Euthycus, Philoxenus and Severus.
We have also found three old copies of this prayer book,
the first of which was written around 1 420, 2 the second
in 1500, in the handwriting of the monk Sergius of
Hah, s and the third in 1507. 4 Later scholars translated
these supplicatory prayers into mediocre Arabic.

SECTION FIFTEEN
The Book of Life

The Syrians had a book or record called the Dabtkha
(from the Greek Dyptichs - the Two Tablets) or, in Syriac,
the Book of Life, or Book of the Living. This book
contained a lengthy account of the redemptive works of
Our Lord Jesus Christ followed by a list of the Prophets,
the Aposdes, the Evangelists, the ancient doctors of the
church, the illustrious chiefs of priests in the world, the
saints, the martyrs, the ascetics, the pious women of the
Old Testament, the female martyrs, the virgins and the
ascetic women. It also includes a record of the Patri-
archs of Antioch, the Maphrians of the East, the incum-
bent bishops of the dioceses in which this record was
read and preserved, and the names of a group of
eminent priests, deacons, monks and nuns and men of
charitable and religious endowment. Only a very small
group of the betrayers of the faith and immoral men
were excluded. A few blank sheets were also left for
recording new names.

This splendid book was read during the celebration
of the Holy Eucharist on principal festivals after the Kiss
of Peace. In some churches it was read once a year only
to perpetuate the memory of the Church fathers and
dignitaries; then, it was placed on the Altar for the rest
of the year. This book is very old and had been men-
tioned by the author of the Areopagite’s Book at the
close of the fifth century and also by Moses Bar Kifa (d.
903). However, its recitation was dropped around the
eleventh century. In 1909 we found two old copies of
this Book, the first in Basibrina (consisting of 140
medium-sized pages and written in 1499 for the Monas-
tery of Qartamin and containing many important his-
torical information) , and the second in the village of
Zaz (written in legible hand in the first quarter of the
sixteenth century). The latter consists of 80 pages and
is smaller than the former. We copied more than half of
these two copies and eliminated the names of priests,
monks and laymen. We were later informed that they
were lost through the catastrophes of the war. 1

The Vatican MS. 39 contains a very short and insig-
nificantversion of this book which contains a portion of
religious endowment written for the church of Aleppo
in the middle of the seventeenth century from which a
photographic copy was made for the Bibliotheque
Nationale in Paris. Another short copy in Mosul, was
commented upon in 1825, from which a copy in our
library at Hims was duplicated. Other copies are to be
found in the village of Bartulli and two in Birmingham
(MSS. 3 and 172). Unfortunately, through the vicissi-
tudes of time no trace has been left in our churches of
this useful and comprehensive record, and with it a
great deal of information abou t the history of our Syrian
dioceses was lost.

SECTION SIXTEEN
Calendar of Festivals For The Whole Year

A part of the Syriac rituals is the Calendar of Festivals
which con tain s a table of the festivals, commemorations
and fastings for the whole year. It was prescribed by the
Syrians in the first few centuries. As a matter of fact, the
second oldest copy of this calendar in Christendom is in
Syriac and was written in 41 1 A.D. 2 It contained the
names as well as festivals of the saints in general and
included a group of the Persian martyrs. It exactly
corresponds with the table of Anba Hieronymus
(Jerome).

At the end of the sixth century the monks of the
famous Monastery of Qinnesrin had established a spe-
cial calendar which contained the names of the saints
who flourished in this monastery including some of its
abbots. They had also days of festivals fixed for their
commemoration. At the end of the seventh century,
Jacob of Edessa drew up a general calendar for the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

whole year which included former feasts, fasting and
commemorations except the locally observed com-
memorations. This calendar was used for a long time,
but new names of church dignitaries and ascetics were
added to it by Said bar Sabuni, bishop of Melitene (d.
1095). 3 It was revised in the first quarter of the four-
teenth century by the monk-priest Saliba bar Khayrun
of Hah (d. ca. 1340) who also added to it the names of
many bishops and pious ascetics of Tur Abdin, particu-
larly the monks of the monastery of Qartamin.

In Mosul we found a Beth Gaz of two leaves of an old
but short calendar relating to the Eastern Church,
transcribed in 1546 by the priest Denha of Beth
Khudayda, which mentions a few Eastern bishops and
ascetics, not present in other calendars. We copied
these two leaves. 4

We also have in our library at Hims two copies
transcribed from the old and lengthy original Edessan
calendar of bar Khayrun, one of which is in Amid and
the other one in the library in Jerusalem. One of these
copies, the lengthy one was published by Assemani in
his Bibliotheca Orientalis while Peeters the Polish trans-
lated into Latin the mentioned calendar of Saliba bar

Khayrun and published it in 1908 with insignificant
commentaries.

In 1912 Frangois Nau published his French transla-
tion with marginal notes of thirteen long and short
calendars, beginning with the calendar of the year 411,
and ending with the calendar of Qinnesrin.

We close this chapter with a word about the calendar
of the movable feasts and days of fasting which was
drawn up by Eusebius of Caesarea and later explained,
arranged or abridged by Dioscorus Gabriel of Bartulli,
bishop of the island of Qardu, in 1296, then, by the
Chorepiscopus Yuhanna (John) of Hims around 1716,
and finally by the Chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul in
1766. This last version of the calendar by Jacob of
Qutrubul, which centers around the year 532 (and
changes according to the alphabetical computation)
was published by the subdeacon Gabriel Boyaji of Amid
in College Point New York in the United States. 6 It
begins with the year 1914 and is projected to the year
2221 A.D. It serves as a key to the occurrence of the
fasting of Nineveh, the Lent, the festivals of the Pass-
over, the Ascension, the Epiphany, the Holy Cross as
well as to the beginning of each month in week days.

MS. at the Church of Inhil

Two general service books
in the Estrangelo script.

SECTION SEVENTEEN
The Oldest Manuscript on Which We Depended
in Our Research

What follows is a carefully arranged list of the oldest
manuscripts of service books to which we referred or
depended upon in our research. They comprise about
two hundred volumes.

I. The Fanqiths

Manuscript Contents

Vatican MS. 116

Brit. Mus. MS. 307
Brit Mus. MS. 14525

Brit Mus. MS. 14719
Brit Mus. MS. 14699
Brit Mus. MS. 14708
Berlin MS. 236

B. Nationale MS. 145

Boston MSS. 3032 and
395 7 1

Jerusalem MS. 5 1

Different anthems (re-
frains) for the whole year
written in 857.

A fanqith for the whole
year written in 893.

Prayers for Passion Week,
Lent, the Saints, Palm
Sunday and funeral ser-
vices.

Service Book.

General service book.

Service book for the whole
year written in Estrangelo
script on vellum 9th and
10th century.

Very short general service
book written in Estran-
gelo in 1000 A.D.

General service book.

A brief Estrangelo service
bookfor fasting, and feasts
of saints. 11th and 12th
century.

MS. at the Church of
Diyarbakr

MS. at the Church of
the Edessans in Aleppo

Brit Mus. MS. 350

Brit. Mus. MS. 341

MS. at the Church
of Diyarbakr

MS. at the Church

MS. at the Church
of Meddo

Two service books from
the consecration of the
church to the feasts of
Martyrs. 11th and 12th
century.

The eighth service of the
Resurrection and the
principal feasts arranged
by Jacob of Edessa.
Estrangelo script.

The canons for the whole
year according to the tra-
dition of thejazira.

The canons for the whole
year dated 1189.

A very brief service book
from the Consecration of
the Church, to the feast
ofthe Apostles, written
before the 13th century.

A lengthy old service book
of the Greek canons for
the whole year.

The service book of the
of Diyarbakr Resurrec-
tion and twenty-eight
feasts transcribed by the
monk Zebina in 1208.

A service book for the of
Basibrina saints of the
monastery of Qartamin
written in Estrangelo by
the monk Stephen
around 1200.

A service book for the Res-
urrection as well as the
feasts, written in elegant
Estrangelo script by the
monk Simon of Hah in
1205.

MS. at the Church of Inhil A service book from the

consecration of the
Church to the general or-
der written in Estrangelo
in 1210.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

MS. at the Church
of al-Tahira (the Virgin)
in Mosul

MS. at the Church of
in Mosul

MS. at Berlin

MS. at the Monastery of
Mar Matta (St. Matthews)

MS. at St Thomas Church
in Mosul

MS. at SL Thomas Church
in Mosul

MS. at the Church of Arnas

MS. at the Church
of Qaraqosh

The service book for Lent
transcribed by the monk
Masud in 1212.

Two service books for
al-Tahira (the Virgin)
feasts, one of which was
completed in the year
1213.

A service book for the
whole year containing the
Edessan calendar made
according to the Edessan
tradition, canons ofjacob
of Edessa. as well as the
orders of Mar Phula, Mar
Simon, Zaytuni and Mar
Lazarus. Vol. 1, p. 43 of
the Index.

A service book of the fast
ing of Nineveh, the scar-
city of rain and the three
Fridays in the western
script, 1241.

A service book of feasts,
transcribed by Jacob of
Talqbab in 1245.

A service book of Lent,
compiled by the priest
Abu al-Saadat ibn Duqayq
of Mosul and transcribed
by the priest Simon of
Bartulli in 1246.

Canons and anthems (re-
frains) for the whole year,
written in Estrangelo in
1254.

A service book of the Res-
urrection and the Week
of the White, written in
the 13th century.

A service book for the
Lent

MS. at the Church
of Qaraqosh

B. Nationale MS. 155

MS. at the Church of
al-Tahira (the Virgin) in
Mosul

Medici Lurenziana MS.
35 B.

MS. at our Church in Egypt

Berlin MS. 58

MS. at the Zafaran
Monastery.

Jerusalem (St. Marks’
Monastery) MS. 53

Jerusalem MS. 52

A service book for the fast
ing of Nineveh and the
three Fridays, dated 1270.

1269.

Yearly canons, the tran-
scription ofwhich is partly
Edessan and partly of
Melitene according to the
new revision of 1 279.

Two service books for the
Passion written on paper
in the Estrangelo, script
in 1301.

A regular service book for
weekday prayers as well as
for Sundays and the festi-
vals of saints.

A service book for the con-
secration of the church,
an d for the principal feasts
as well as the festival of St.
Thomas, transcribed by
the monk Jacob of
Manimim in 1383.

The orders of the Resur-
rection which follow the
Pentecost written shortly
before 1395.

The orders of principal
feasts as well as the festi-
vals of saints numbering
forty orders, in the hand-
writing of Sulayman in the
fourteenth century.

A service book for the fes-
tivals of the Nativity of our
Lord and others arranged
according to the celebra-
tion of services at the dif-
ferent holy places in
Jerusalem, written before
1414.

The orders of Palm Sun-
day and the Passion Week
in the handwriting of Pa

MS. at the Monastery
of Mar Matta (St. Matthews)

A service book of fasting
in the hand writing of
Zebina in the 13th cen-
tury.

MS. at the Church of The service book of the

al-Tahira (the Virgin) Mosul fasting of Nineveh and

the three Fridays dated

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Ms. at the Church
of Basibrina

MS. at the Monastery
of Mar Malke

MS. at the St. Elijah
Monastery in Habab

MS. at the Kabiyya Church

MS. at the Church of
St Moses in Damascus.

MS. at the Church of
Hisn Kifa

MS. at the Church of Qellith

MS. at the church
of St. Moses

MS. at the Church of
Mar JurJis (St. George)
in Aleppo

Contents

triarch Basil Simon, writ-
ten in the year 1443.

Two service books for the
Resurrection, one of
which was transcribed
from six copies by monk
Yeshu of Basibrina in
1444.

A large size service book,
transcribed by the monk
Malke Saqo in 1476.

A service book for the Res-
urrection in the handwrit-
ing of the monk Ibrahim
of Basibrina, written in

1479.

A service book of the Res-
urrection, the general or-
ders and the week of the
Whites, in the handwrit-
ing of the monk Malke
Saqo, written around

1480.

A service book of the Res-
urrection and the saints
dated 1487. Another copy
of the same manuscript
in the same church was
written in an elegan t script
before 1487.

A winter service book in
the handwriting of the
monk Denha Sayfi of Salh
in 1496.

The service books of the
Resurrection and festivals
of saints, transcribed by
the monk Ibrahim of
Kafar in 1505.

The service books of the
Resurrection, the festivals
of saints and the week of
the White written in 1513.

The service books of the
Resurrection, and of the
saints in the handwriting

MS. at the St. Thomas
Church in Mosul

Boston MS 4031

Brit. Mus. MS. 14494

Brit. Mus. MS. 14495
Brit. Mus. MS. 17128
B. Nationale, Paris MS. 70

Jerusalem Library MS. 55

The Zafaran Monastery
MS. 117

of themonk Ibrahim of
Nabk, written in 1526.

The service book of the
Annunciation, i.e., the
Christmas days of fasting,
dated 1535.

In vellum, a huge volume
written in an elegantscript
between the 10th and
11th century. It contains
orders from the consecra-
tion of the Church to the
Festival of the Cross.

In vellum, some husoyos
in the Estrangelo script
Imperfect.

Orders and husoyos for
fasting.

Husoyos for the whole
year.

A sacerdotal for priests
with a collection of
husoyos for the whole year
according to the newly es-
tablished revision, written
in elegantEstrangelscript
in 1059.

A sacerdotal for priests
with a collection of un-
specific husoyos, written
in the Estrangelo script
by the priest Said Shamli
of Hisn Ziyad in 117 1.

In vellum, husoyos for the
Passion Week as well as
the festivals which succeed

B. Nationale, Paris MS. 167 Winter husoyos in the

handwriting of Michael
the Great, written in 1 190.

MS. at the Church of Qellith The service books of the

Resurrection and the
feasts in the handwriting
of the monk Tuma of
Midyat, written in 1553.

11 . The Husoyos (Propitiatory Prayers)

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

MS. at the Church

the Resurrection. Written
in the Estrangelo script at
the Monastery of Ascetics
in the Mountain of Edessa
in 1209.

of Meddo for winter
MS. at the Monastery

MS. at the Church

On paper, unspecific

of Mar Malke

of Diyarbakr

husoyos for the whole

year. Written in Western
script by Dioscorus
Theodorus in 1225. An-
other copy of the same
manuscript is in this
church.

MS. at the Church

On vellum and paper, the

of Basibrina

of Diyarbakr

husoyos of the Passion as

MS. at the Church

well as the summer
husoyos. Written in West-
ern script by the monk
Zebina in 1227.

Many husoyos for the

MS. at the Church
of Basibrina

of al-Tahira, Mosul

Apostles and the deeds of

Christ Our Lord as well as
a liturgy by Cyril of Hah,
written in the fourteenth
century.

MS. at the Church

MS. at the Monastery

The husoyos of fasting in

of Basibrina

of the Cross, Makhr

the handwriting of the

monk Ibrahim of Hah,
written in the fourteenth

MS. at the Church of Inhil

MS. at the Church

century.

A similar copy of the

MS. at the Monastery of

of Hisn Kifa

former manuscript, writ-

St. Jacob

MS. at the Zafaran

ten in 1392.

The husoyos of the Resur-

Monastery

rection and the deeds of

Christ Our Lord, in the
handwriting of the priest
Simon of Amid, written
around 1450.

MS. at the Church of

B. Nationale, Paris MS. 374

Husoyos from the Nativ-

St. Moses in Damascus

ity of John the Baptist till
the end of the Passion
Week, in the handwriting
of the monk Sergius of
Hah, written at the close
of the fifteenth century.

A huge volume contain-
ing 307 husoyos in the
handwriting of the monk
Ibrahim Mutayra, written
between 1460 and 1480.

Husoyos for the consecra-
tion of the church and
Lent, transcribed by Jo-
seph in 1468. Another
manuscript in this Mon-
astery contains husoyos
for the saints and the prin-
cipal feasts.

A thick volume contain-
ing husoyos from the con-
secration of the Church
to the Sunday of the res-
urrection in thehandwrit
ing of the priest Addai,
written in 1478.

The husoyos of the Resur-
rection until the Dispen-
sation of Our Lord, in the
handwriting of priest
Addai, written in 1477.

The husoyos of the festi-
vals of saints. A thick vol-
ume probably written by
the same Addai.

Winter husoyos.

Husoyos for the consecra-
tion of the in Salh Church
in the handwriting of the
monk Sadaqa of Ayn
Ward. Another manu-
script in this monastery
contains the husoyos for
Lent.

An ancient manuscript
containing husoyos for
the consecration of the
church and Lent. A sec-
ond manuscript contains
husoyos for the resurrec-
tion and the festivals of
sain ts. A third manuscript
in this church contains
husoyos for the consecra-
tion of the church and

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

MS. at the Church
of Qellith

MS. at the Monastery
of John of Tay

MS. at the Church
of Hisn Kifa

MS. at the Monastery
of the Cross, Makhr

MS. at the Church
of Qalat Mara

III. Baptism, the Benediction of Marriage,
Prayers for the Sick, and Repentance

Contents

succeeding festivals, in the
handwriting of Ibrahim
al-Mardini, written in
1 504. A fourth manuscript
contains husoyos written
at the beginning of the
sixteenth century.

A thick volume contain-
ing husoyos for the whole
year written in a very el-
egant script by the monk
Ibrahim ibn al Muzawwaq
in 1487. Another manu-
script contains husoyos
for the resurrection and
the summer festivals.

A large volume of husoyos
for the consecration of the
church and Lent, in the
handwriting of the monk
Sergius, written in 1504.

Husoyos for the consecra-
tion of the church, tran-
scribed by the monk Jo-
seph the Iberian in 1506.

Summer husoyos tran-
scribed byjoseph the Ibe-
rian in 1507. Another
manuscript contains
husoyos for the resurrec-
tion as well as the com-
memorationsin thehand-
writing of the monk Tho-
mas of Midyat, written in
1559. A third manuscript
in the same Monastery
contains the husoyos for
the saints in the handwrit-
ing of the two monks
Ibrahim and Saliba Awad,
written in 1549.

The husoyos for saints in
the handwriting of the
monk Iliyya Yeshu in the
middle of the sixteenth
century.

Brit. Mus. MS. 17128
Brit Mus. MS. 14495

MS. at our Library in Hims

Jerusalem MS. 117

MS. at our Church in Egypt

B. Nationale, Paris MS. 102

MS. at the Church of
St. Cosmas for the Greeks
in Diyarbakr

MS. at our Church in Egypt

MS. at the Church of
Mar Sarkis in Sadad

The order of Baptism by
Timothy of Alexandria.

The order of Baptism
composed by Severus and
translated into Syriac by
Paul, bishop of Talla.

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage in the beautiful
Estrangelo script, written
in the tenth century.

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage dated 1 324.

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage in the handwrit-
ing of Patriarch Phil-
oxenus 11, written at the
close of the fourteenth
century.

The order of the Bene-
diction of Marriage as ar-
ranged byJacobofEdessa
and other doctors of the
Church, dated 1434.

The orders of Baptism,
the Benediction of Mar-
riage and a part of the
funeral service, in the
handwriting of Joseph
bishop of Kharput and
Karkar, written in 1451.

The order of the Bene-
diction of Marriage in the
handwriting of Moses in
the fifteenth or sixteenth
century.

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage in the handwrit-
ing of Bishop Ibrahim,
written at the beginning
of the sixteenth century.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

Another copy of this

manuscript is at our li- MS. at our Library

brary.

Jerusalem MS. 59

The order of the Bene-
diction of Marriage writ-
ten in the sixteenth cen-
tury.

Jerusalem MS. Ill

A second order for the
consecration of Baptismal
Oil originally contained
by the book of Ordina-
tions in the handwriting
of Patriarch Nuh.

a Beth Gaz (Treasure of
Melodies) in 1210.

A service book of the of-
fice of ordinations, the
orders of Baptism, the
Benediction of Marriage
and parts of the orders of
principal festivals, half of
which were transcribed in
the thirteenth century
with the name of nine
church fathers in Greek
fixed in its margin, and
the other half in the be-
ginning of the fifteen cen-
tury.

MS. at the Church of
the Edessens in Aleppo

Vatican MS. 51

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage as well as the
canons of Repentance
which had been written
and compiled by Patri-
arch Jacob.

A general order for the
confessors.

MS. at our Library

Jerusalem MS. 109

The Edessens Library
at Aleppo

The service book for as-
suming the monastic
garb, dated 1358.

A service book of ordina-
tions (according to the
Eastern Rite) in the hand-
writing of deacon Abd Al-
lah of Bartulli in 1300.

The book of clerical ordi-
nation.

MS. at the Church of Hafar An order for the sick.

MS. at the Church
of Bartulli

MS. at the Church
of Kharput

BriLMus. MS. 17232

The orders of Baptism
and the Benediction of
Marriage by St. Severus
together with the order
of Baptism abridged by
the maphrian (probably
Bar Hebraeus) .

The order of clerical ordi-
nations in the handwrit-
ing of Bishop Dawud in
1203.

The order of assuming the
monastic garb, written in

Sharfa MS. 5/7

MS. at our Library

MS. at the Monastery
of Cross in Tur Abdin

Jerusalem MS. Ill

The service book of ordi-
nations and sacraments,
written in the fourteenth
century.

The order of ordinations
and parts of the order of
principal festivals, some
of which was transcribed
at the beginning of the
fifteenth century and oth-
ers in 1 862. Another copy
contains the order of or-
dinations written in the
middle of the fifteenth
and latter part of the eigh-
teenth century.

A thick service book of
the order of ordinations
in the handwriting of the
monk Qufer of Tur
Abdin, written in 1487.

A service book of the or-
der of ordinations in the

IV. The Office of Ordination

B. Nationale, Paris MS. 113

The order of clerical ordi-
nation in the handwrit-
ing of Michael the Great.
Another copy, MS. 1 12 of
the same, is dated 1239.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

MSS. at our Library

Zafaran Monastery MS. 220

Vatican MS. 51

handwriting of Patriarch
Nuh, written in 1506. An-
other two copies, NIS S. I
10 and 113, in this library
contain the service book
of ordinations transcribed
in the sixteenth century.

Liturgies, the office of or-
dination of a deacon and
priest, the order of assum-
ing the monastic garb as
well as the consecration
of the Chrism in the hand-
writing of the metropoli-
tan Cyril Joseph, written
in 1513. Another manu-
script contains the conse-
cration of the Chrism, the
Altar and the Church,
transcribed in the middle
of the sixteenth century.

A large service book of
ordinations and principal
services in the handwrit-
ing of Bishop Joseph the
Iberian, written in 1535.

A service book of ordina-
tions.

MS. at the Monastery
of Mar Ibrahim in Midyat

MS. at the Monastery
of Mar Awgayn

Jerusalem MS. 58

MS. at the Church
of Diyarbakr

MS. Paris

MS. at the Church
of Mar Sarkis in Sadad

forgiveness on the Satur-
day of Annunciation,
dated 1443.

The order of all of the
festivals in the large Beth
Gaz, dated 1468, which
has been lost.

A complete service book
with hymns comprising
thirteen festivals in the
handwriting of the monk
Malke Saqo, written in
1484.

A service book with hymns
in the handwriting of the
monk Addai of Hbab, writ-
ten in 1495.

A service book with hymns
transcribed by Ibrahim of
Basibrina, written in 1495.

A service book with hymns
in the handwriting of
Ibrahim of Basibrina, writ-
ten in 1496.

A service book with hymns
transcribed by the monk
Bishara, written in 1564.

V. Sendee Books of Hymns For Principal Feasts

Brit Mus. MS. 141494

Brit. Mus. MS. 17128
Zafaran MS. 99

MS. at our Church in Egypt
Jerusalem MS. 52

Contains the order of the
consecration of water on
the Epiphany, written on
vellurn. Imperfect at the
beginning.

The same as above.

An ancient book with
hymns for principal feasts.

The order of the Bene-
diction of Branches in the
handwriting of David the
Egyptian, written in 1403.

The order of Palm Sun-
day as well as the order of

Jerusalem MS. 62

MS. at the Church
of Fayruza

Vatican MS. 92

Boston {Houghton Library,
Harvard University)

MS. 4013

The Benediction of the
water composed by
Severus and vocalized by
Jacob of Edessa dated
1569.

A service book with hymns
in the handwriting of the
monk Gurgis al-Wanki,
written around 1601.

A funeral service book
written on vellum in a
good and fine Estrangelo
script in 823.

Funeral services of priests,
deacons, monks and lay
men written in the twelfth
century.

VI. Funeral Sendees

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

MS. at the Church
of Diyarbakr

A complete funeral ser-
vice book comprising vari-
ous hymns written in the
Estrangelo script by the
monk Yeshu of the
Malphan Monastery in
118 8.

Brit. Mus. MS. 14494

Some sedras for the dead,
one of which was written
by Athanasius patriarch of
Antioch.

Brit. Mus. MS. 14520

A service book compris-
ing a fun eral service which
begins with a hymn based
on the melody of Para-
dise written by a learned
church father.

Brit. Mus. MS. 17131

The funeral services for
the priests and monks. It
also contains a madrash
by bar Andrew.

Brit Mus. MS. 14502

A funeral service book.

Brit. Mus. MS. 14525

A funeral service written
on vellum in the
Estrangelo script. Imper-
fect.

Brit. Mus. MSS. 14638
and 14636

Consolatory discourses
for the dead.

Vatican MS. 93

Some madrashes for the
dead included within the
discourses of John the
Ascetic.

Boston (Houghton Library,
Harvard University)

MS. 4016

Funeral services for men,
women and children ac-
cording to the order of
Jacob of Edessa, written
by Simon in a neat hand-
writing in the fourteenth
century.

Jerusalem MS. 117

Funeral service for men
and children, in two
hymns written in 1324.

MS. at the Church of Hama

A funeral service for the
dead according to the or-
der of Melitene and Hisn

Ziyad and the funeral ser-
vice for the priests accord-
ing to the order of Tur
Abdin, written in a neat
handwriting at the begin-
ning of the fifteenth cen-
tury.

MS. at the Church
of the Virgin in Bartulli

An old funeral service
bookand another one for
priests written in the
middle of tire sixteenth
century.

Jerusalem MS. 120

A funeral service accord-
ing to the arrangementof
Jacob of Edessa.

MS. at the Church of Hims

Funeral services for the
clergy and laity comprised
two hymns, one by St.
Ephraim and the other by
Asuna, written in the
middle of the seventeenth
century.

MS. at the Monastery
of St. Matthew

A funeral service for ini-
tiate monks.

MS. at the Church of the
Virgin in Qaraqush

A funeral service for ini-
tiate monks.

VII Madrashes and Maaniths

Vatican MS. I 1 1

161 madrashes by St.
Ephraim, written on vel-
lum in the Estrangelo
script in 522.

Vatican MS. 112

The same as above, writ-
ten in the year 552.

MS. British MUS.2

Hymns of Severus of
Antioch written on vellum
in 675.

Brit. Mus. MS. 17261

Supplicatory hymns and
calendars of festivals.

Vatican MS. 113

87 madrashes written be-
fore 932.

MS. Brit. Mus.

Madrashes written before
the thirteenth century.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Contents

Brit. Mus. MS. 14520

Madrashes, anthems and
verses for the Passion
Week. It also contains a
funeral service and con-
solatory discourses.

Jerusalem MS. 60

The hymn of Severus and
230 supplicatory hymns of
Rabula written on vellum
in 1210.

MS. Brit. Mus.

General supplicatory
hymns written in 1257.

MS. at our Library

A valuable collection of
madrashes fine introduc-
tory hyn-ms and qalas writ-
ten in handwriting in the
thirteenth century.

MS. at our Church of
West New York in
New Jersey

A valuable collection of
madrashes according to
the order of Melitene in
the handwriting of Dea-
con Ibrahim al-Dunaysari
in 1285.

Zafaran MS. 118

A valuable collection of
madrashes, introductory
hymns and cathismata
written in a pleasant hand-
writing between the thir-
teenth and the fourteenth
century.

VJU. The Beth Gaz ( Treasure of Melodies)

Sharfa MS. 511

A very lengthy Beth Gaz
written between the elev-
enth and twelfth century.

Brit. Mus. MS. 17207

Portions of psalters and
hymns for taking the Holy
Communion written be-
tween the eighth and
ninth century.

Brit Mus. MS. 17232

A Beth Gaz in the hand-
writing of Deacon Denha,
written in 1210.

B. Nationale, Paris
MS. 147

A Beth Gaz in the hand-
writing of Philoxenus.

MS. at our Library

A Beth Gaz written be-
tween the fourteenth and
fifteenth century.

MS. at the Church
of Diyarbakr

A valuable lengthy Beth
Gaz in the fine handwrit-
ing of Deacon Abu
al-Hasan, written in the
fifteenth century.

MS. at the Jerusalem
Library

A Beth Gaz in the hand-
writing of the monk
Simon Mubarak, written
in 1436.

MS. at the Church
of al-Tahira in Mosul

An old Beth Gaz written
in an elegant Karkari
script

MS. at the Monastery
of Mar Ibrahim in Midyat

A very elaborate and valu-
able Be th Gaz in the hand-
writing of Bishop Simon
of Ayn Ward, written in
1468.

MS. Zafaran

A Beth Gaz written in
1471.

Jerusalem MS. 79

A Beth Gaz in the neat
and fine handwriting of
the monk Saliba of Salh,
written in 1470 or 1480.

MS. at the Church
of Meddo

A lengthy Beth Gaz tran-
scribed from three cop-
ies, one of which belongs
to the monk Basil in the
handwriting of the monk
Saliba, written in 1478.

MS. at the Rockefeller
University in Chicago

A small-size Beth Gaz in
the handwriting of the
monk Ibrahim of Basi-
brina, written in 1481.

Zafaran MS. 124

A lengthy Beth Gaz in the
handwriting of Jacob 1,
patriarch of Antioch, writ-
ten in 1488.

MS. at the village of Bati

A Beth Gaz written in
1488.

Brit. Mus. MS. 14736

A Beth Gaz in the hand-
writing of the monk
Ibrahim of Basibrina, writ-
ten in 1492.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Manuscript

Jerusalem MS. 64

Woodbrooke Library,
Birmingham MS. 321

MS. at al-Hasaka
(Upper Jazira)

MS. at our Library

Contents

A Beth Gaz written in a
neat but thick script be-
tween the fifteenth and
sixteenth century.

A Beth Gaz comprising
hymns of St Ephraim ac-
cording to the Khudaydi 5
order, processional hymns
and madrashes on eight
melodies (except the
melody of Paradise which
is based on five melodies)
transcribed by the priest
Den ha of Khudayda in
1542.

A Beth Gaz with the analy-
sis of the scales of songs,
written at the Monastery
of Mar Abhai in 1560.

A lengthy Beth Gaz writ-
ten in a neat script com-
pleted by Bishop Bahnam
the Qusuri (originally
from Arbo) in 1568. An-
other Beth Gaz written in
fine handwriting by Yeshu

Jerusalem MS. 62

MS. at the Zafaran
Monastery

MS. at the Church
of Mardin

MS. at the Church
of Bartulli

MS. at our Church
in Constantinople.

in the middle of the six-
teenth century. A third
Beth Gas transcribed by
the priest Mansur of Zaz
in 1569. Afourth Beth Gaz
written in the sixteenth
century.

A Beth Gaz written in a
Karkari script in 1569.

A lengthy Beth Gaz com-
prising the Eastern Inter-
cession in the handwrit-
ing of Denha, written in
the middle of the six-
teenth century.

A lengthy Beth Gaz writ-
ten at the close of the six-
teenth century.

A Beth Gaz according to
the order of Takrit writ-
ten in 1590.

A Beth Gaz according to
the order of Melitene and
Mesopotamia written in
1614.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Theology

Beside the benefits they gained from translating the
Greek works of the pioneer Christian theologians,
whether Greeks, Copts or Romans, 1 the Syrians excelled
in theology and produced eminent theologians, whose
names and works are given below.

If we exclude the many theological subjects which
were deeply penetrated and fathomed by St. Ephraim,
Isaac and Jacob of Saruj in their splendid poems and
hymns, the works of St. Severus in which he examined
and established the facts with decisive proofs, the Syn-
odical letters exchanged between the patriarchs of
Antioch and Alexandria from 514 to 850, the doctrinal
reports and letters written by bishops and abbots in the
second half of the sixth century which were compiled in
the Syriac Documents, 2 and the homilies and expositions
of the Holy Bible, we would consider Philoxenus of
Mabug the first Syrian theological authority who ven-
tured into this momentous branch of knowledge.
Philoxenus was followed by Jacob of Edessa, the patri-
arch Cyriacus, John of Dara, Moses bar Kifa, Bar Salibi
and Bar Hebraeus. These church dignitaries are consid-
ered of the leading and chief theologians in establish-
ing the divine knowledge and supporting it by authori-
ties. They stand in the first category of theologians
followed by a second and a third category.

Philoxenus wrote two valuable treatises on the Trin-
ity, monotheism and the Incarnation of the Word.
Jacob of Edessa wrote a theological book mentioned by
Bar Hebraeus in his Hudoye (Nomocanon or Direction)
as well as an interesting chapter in the book The Six Days
in which he discussed the salvation of man. Jacob also
wrote an expository treatise of the celebration of the
Holy Eucharist Another author, the patriarch Cyriacus,
wrote an eloquent and splendid work on the Provi-
dence of God. John of Dara composed four apposite
works on the priest and priesthood, the Resurrection,
the Angles, the Demons, the human soul and Paradise.
Moses bar Kifa wrote five excellent and very rich books
on the Hexameron (the Six Days of Creation) , the Resur-
rection, Paradise, the Angels, the human soul, the
exposition of the Sacraments, Baptism, the Chrism and
the Holy Eucharist Bar Salibi was the author of a large
volume of copious subjects dealing with theology and
the exposition of the sacraments. He also wrote another

volume on Polemics. From the pen of Bar Hebraeus we
have Mnorath Qudshe (The Lamp of the Sanctuaries)
and its abridgement, Zalge (The Book of Rays) in which
he fathomed the divine knowledge and tackled its
origins and branches. He also offered us two treatises on
the human soul.

The second category includes Aphrahat (Aphraatus)
the Persian who wrote the Homilies, the patriarch Peter
of Raqqa (Callinicus) , who wrote a theological treatise
of three chapters in refutation of Dominaus of Alexan-
dria, Julian the Second who thoroughly commented on
and clarified the work of his predecessor, John III, and
Athanasius II who composed masterful sedras, George,
bishop of the Arabs, who expounded the Sacraments of
the Church, John of Atharb who wrote a very useful
treatise on the soul, Lazarus bar Qandasa and Ben-
jamin, metropolitan of Edessa, who excelled in master-
ful commentaries and notes, Lazarus bar Sobto and bar
Wahbun who wrote two expository treatises on the
celebration of the Holy Eucharist, Nonnus of Nisibin
who refuted Thomas of Marga and also wrote a treatise
on monotheism, the Trinity and on the Word of God,
Anton of Takrit who wrote a book on the Providence of
God and expounded the sacrament of the Chrism, John
the disciple of Marun the author of a tractate on the
Incarnation of the Word, bar Shushan and bar Andrew
who challenged the Armenians, bar Sabuni the author
of the husoyos which indicate his deep-rooted knowl-
edge in the divine knowledge andjacob of Bartulli who
wrote the two books of the Treasures and the Plain Truth.

Under the third category come Simon Zaytuni the
author of treatises on the dogma, Phocas bar Sergius
and Theodore bar Zarudi who commented on the work
attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, Daniel of Beth
Batin who wrote a treatise on the difference between
the Eucharist and the Chrism, the Rabban Sergius who
refuted the allegations of the Armenians, John bishop
of Mardin who wrote two treatises on the exposition of
the Holy Eucharist and the Chrism, and Simon,
maphrian of Tur Abdin (d. 1740) from whose pen we
have two books Theology and The Chariot of Mysteries.

To this category may be added Aziz bar Sobto who
wrote a treatise entitled The Ascent of the Mind and Masud
of Zaz who has a few theological chapters in his book
entitled The Spiritual Ship}

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
The Pseudo-Work of Dionysius
The Areopagite

In view of the far-reaching effect and the great
controversy which has been caused among scholars by
the work ascribed to the theologian Dionysius the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Areopagite, we will devote a special chapter to it.

This book, which is comprised of 466 pages, was
dedicated to the Bishop Timothy. 1 Of its four treatises
the first, divided into thirteen chapters dealing with the
divine names (de Divinis Nominibus), takes up half of
the work. The second, on the celestial hierarchy, con-
tains fifteen chapters dealing with the angels, their
duties, names and ranks. The third, on mystical theol-
ogy, contains five chapters discussing God as an incom-
prehensible being free from falsehood. Finally, the
fourth, on the ecclesiastical hierarchy, consists of seven
chapters according to the Mosul copy. The Jerusalem
copy, however, complies with the arrangement of the
Latin translation in regard to the following: The Celes-
tial Hierarchy, the Ecclesiastical Hierarchies, the Divine
Names, and Mystical Theology. It seems that either
Phocas or Cyriacus Shamuna changed the organization
of the old copy of this work. 2

These treatises are followed by ten epistles, some of
which were addressed to Gaius the ascetic and the rest
to Dorotheos the deacon, Sosypatrus the priest,
Dimophelus the ascetic, Polycarp the chief priest, Titus,
and John the Apostle. The Jerusalem copy mentions
that the author wrote a treatise on the legitimate Eccle-
siastical Hierarchy which he placed before the Celestial
Hierarchy, but it was not rendered into Syriac.

There are many copies of this work, most of which
were written on vellum. The oldest copy, transcribed
about the seventh century (Mount Sinai Library, MS.
52), is imperfect at the beginning and the end. The
second copy, transcribed in a very elegant Estrangelo
script by the Edessene Malkite scribe, Cyriacus bar
Shamuna, who finished it on 1st December 766 5 , is
complete. It is preserved at our church of al-Tahira in
Mosul. The third copy, transcribed in the ninth century
is preserved at our Jerusalem Library (MS. 123), and
resembles the former in its script and elegance. It
mentions the year 887 as the date of the donation of the
book. Other copies are preserved at the British Museum
(MS. 12151 written in 804 A.D. and MS. 22370 written
about 1350 A.D.) 4

Here are the contents of the book in detail. In the
first treatise the author discusses the source of the
Divine Names, the theology of the union and separation
of the two natures of Christ and what is the essence of
this divine union or separation; the meaning of prayer,
worship, and the writing of the theological science. He
also discusses the good, the light and the radiant, and
rejects the perpetuity of evil and that it proceeds from
the living God. He further discussed life, wisdom, rea-
son, speech, truth, faith, power, justice, safety, equality
and inequality, semblance and dissemblance, the cos-
mos, the Almighty, the Ancient of days, eternity, times
and peace, the essence of Him who exists by himself, the
essence of the living, the Most Holy, the King of Kings,
the perfect and the One God.

In the second treatise, he discusses the Ecclesiastical

Hierarchy and its usefulness, the meaning of the at-
tributes of angels, the reason the heavenly hosts were
called angels and their first, middle, and last ranks. The
Seraphim, the Cherubim, and the Thrones are the first
rank; the Dominions, the Powers or Heavenly Hosts and
Princedoms are the middle rank; the Principalities, the
angels and archangels are of the last rank. He also
discussed the reason these Celestial Hierarchies were
called Heavenly Hosts, why the term angels was used for
the church hierarchies, the number of angels which has
been handed to us, and the portraits which resemble^
the angelic hosts. Up to this time the subject of angels
had been considered to be so obscure that it was not
even taken up in the writings of Basilius and Gregory
Nazianzen. It only became known when the author of
this book (Dionysius the Areopagite) wrote aboutitand
his ideas were adopted by Christian scholars. 5

The third treatise contained the Mystical Theology
and the Celestial Cloud, the explanation of how we
should praise and declare as one Him who is the cause
of all and dominates over all; the theological terminolo-
gies which might be used negatively and positively; and
the propositions that there is no perceptible being
which by its eminence could become the cause of all
perceptible tilings and that no rational being could
become by its eminence the cause of all rational things.

The fourth treatise discusses the essence and pur-
poses of bestowing the authority of priesthood and what
should be done in the case of baptism, the celebration
of the Holy Eucharist, the Chrism, the ecclesiastical
laying of hands, its ranks, rituals and also monasticism
and the prayer for the dead.

Here are some of the author’s opinions: The author
believes that the Almighty God is the absolute and
supreme being who can neither be contained by an
attribute nor be comprehended by words. Also, the
perfection, beauty and knowledge attributed to Him do
not apply to Him in the same proportion of our under-
standing of these qualities that we perceive in the
created beings 6 and that the two terms “Monotheism”
and “Trinity” do not at all express the reality of the
Divine Being, whose majesty is incomprehensible. 7 For
the deacon purifies the believer, the priest enlightens
him, and the bishop perfects him. 8 Furthermore, the
Neo-Platonic philosophy which penetrated the theo-
retical mystical theology does not confirm reality but
exposes it under a veil of symbols through which it leads
the thirsty soul to holiness and light- but with no proof. 9

The text of the book is preceded by these chapters: 10

1) A treatise by Sergius the Priest entitled the “Intro-
duction” which precedes the translation of the book
from Greek into Syriac (34 pages).

2) A treatise composed by Phocas bar Sergius of
Edessa in which he explains the notes and expounds on
the text (p. 3) .

3) A defense of the book and its author and commen-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

tator by the Bishop John of Baysan (Scythopolis), the
scholastic. The gist of the defense is that this book was
written by (Dionysius) the Areopagite and that the
objection of those who denied his authorship on the
ground that Eusebius of Caesarea did not mention it is
irrelevant In fact, Eusebius admitted that many books
had not reached him, such as the works of Narcissus,
Hemneas, Pantaenas and Clement of Rome (excepting
his two epistles) and others. He only mentioned four
works of Origen and a few others by Hemneas, and that
a Roman deacon named Peter informed him that the
works of Dionysius the Areopagite were preserved at the
library of Rome. The writer concludes that the objector
to the teaching of this saint regarding Monotheism and
Trinity, the rational and perceptible being, the resur-
rection and the Lastjudgment has simply no proof on
which to condemn him.

4) A second defense of seven pages written by George
of Baysan (Scythopolis), priest of the great church of
Constantinople. It purports that Dionysius of Alexan-
dria has stated in his letter to Xystus II of Rome that
because the Areopagite was well-versed and proficient
he was qualified to write on theology. He added that,
although many scholars flourished in the church, their
works, nevertheless, were lost to us, let alone the works
falsified by the hypocrites. Both John and George were
Malkites who lived in the first part of the sixth century.

5) A report by the priest Mar Atanos in 817, which
precedes the book and its table of contents.

6) A treatise by the Rabban Lazarus bar Qandasa
supporting the author’s opinion on the priority of the
Seraphim’s rank.

7) Commentaries on the text by Theodore bar Zarudi
of Edessa, 11 MS. 124 transcribed in the ninth or tenth
century at the Jerusalem library contains explanations
of the obscurities of the book in 37 pages. Contrary to
other manuscripts this copy counts fifty chapters.

It is, therefore, evident from what has been men-
tioned that the Syrians received this book with approval.
They were followed by the Byzantines, who greatly
revered it, and the Latins, who rendered it into their
language and whose scholars were about to place it on
the same footing with the Holy Scriptures. 12 On its
foundation their chief scholar, Thomas Aquinas (d.
1271), based most of his elaborate theological writ-
ings. 15 He never deviated from its principles, which he
regarded as final. The impact of mysdcal theology on
the minds of the Westerners was so far-reaching that
none of them before the fifteenth century doubted its
authenticity. Not until the middle of the nineteenth
century did the scholars loudly declare that the book
was apocryphal and resolved that its writer was a philoso-
pher-monk who possessed exceptional creativeness,
ability and adroitness. This writer had a tendency to-
wards the orthodox doctrine but shunned the disputa-

tions of the people in his time. He wrote the book in
Greek in the land of al-Sham (Syria) or Palestine later
than 482, perhaps in the latter part of the fifth or the
beginning of the sixth century. Avoiding the mention-
ing of the one incarnate nature or the two natures of
Christ, he advocated a new one theandric act for the
incarnate God, 14 and welded the Neo-Platonic philoso-
phy with the Christian science of theology after reading
the works of Proclus , an adherent of this philosophy
(41 1-485 ) , and making great use of them. Moreover, he
associated the mystical theology with ecclesiastical the-
ology. He also mentioned the recitation of the Creed of
Faith in the celebration of the Eucharist, which was only
established in the year 476, and came out for the
baptism of infants and a complete monastic order (of
which there is no trace in the first three centuries). In
his writing, he purposely adopted a majestic style full of
vague expressions and metaphors while avoiding simple
wording in order to hide his purpose. In doing this, he
may merely have been imitating the style of pagan phi-
losophers, or he might possibly have believed that such a
method would be more appropriate for his grave subject
He also pretended that he was guiding his readers to the
way of perfection which ends with the witnessing of God.
He also introduced a teaching free from doubt for con-
templating and drawing near His presence.

This book appeared for the first time in 532-533 in a
controversial session which included the Orthodox and
Malkites. While the Orthodox cited it as a testimony the
Malkites rejected it although a few of their scholars
accepted and defended it. In the following century an
exposition of this book was made by the monothelite
monk Maximus (d. 662) after which it was unanimously
accepted by the Orthodox and Malkite scholars. This is
what contemporary Western scholars say about this
book without discussing the arguments of ancient schol-
ars. They also state that although they have not uncov-
ered its mystery completely, they have paved the way for
such a goal.

After presenting the arguments and evidence of
these scholars, and casting a penetrating look at the text
and its Syriac expositions which occupied the scholars
for nearly three hundred years (500P-817?), we may
conclude that due to its form and style, this book is
apocryphal. Its complicated style, of Neo-Platonic na-
ture, and its treatment of subjects unknown to the early
period of Christianity, leaves no doubt that it was the
composition of an unknown author. But it is not un-
likely that it had a short authentic origin to which the
author added much information and gave it its new
form characterized by a special philosophical style.
Although the testimony of Dionysius of Alexandria (d.
256) about the Areopagite did not reach us, it is as
valuable and irrefutable as his testimony about the
Didascalia and other subjects.

CHAPTER NINETEEN
Ecclesiastical Apologetics

Apologetical literature is the defense of the right of
Christianity to exist It is of Greek origin, but a transla-
tion of the ancient texts of ecclesiastical apologetics
which have been lost to us survive in Syriac. A seventh
century manuscript containing the apology of Aristides
was discovered by Rendel Harris at the Monastery of St.
Catherine in Mount Sinai. Harris proved that the au-
thor had addressed this Apology to Antoninus Pious
and not to Hadrian as has been mentioned by Eusebius.
Another apology, ascribed to St. Meliton, bishop of
Sardis, is addressed to Antoninus. Its copy is thought to
have been written in the seventh century. Both of these
apologetical treatises have been published. Also pub-
lished was the treatise entitled An Explanation of the
Excellence of Christianity over Paganism by the converted
Greek philosopher Ambrose.

CHAPTER TWENTY
Ecclesisastical Jurisprudence
and Civil Law

It is obvious that the Holy Church concerned itself
with ecclesiastical jurisprudence in the Councils which
it held and in the canons enacted by its Fathers. Canons
were, therefore, made at the Councils of Ancyra (An-
kara) , Neo-Caesarea, Nicea, Antioch, Laodicea, Gangara,
Constantinople, Ephesus, Carthage, Sardica and
Chalcedon. These canons were translated into Syriac
and are preserved in old manuscripts in the libraries of
the Zafaran Monastery, the Vatican, Paris and London.
There are two copies of the canons of Nicea. The first
contains the permanent twenty canons which were
translated by Marutha of Miyafarqin at the request of
Isaac the Catholicos of Ctesiphon. The second contains
the canons called the Arabic because they existed in the
eleventh century in this language. In our library at Hims
an Arabic copy of these canons survives which dates
back closely to this century. Other copies are in the
British Museum, MSS. 14526 and 14528, the Zafaran

Monastery, MS. 121, and the Vatican Borgiana, MS. 83.
Accompanying these are the Syriac canons enacted by
the Persian Bishops in the Council of Seluecia and
Ctesiphon held in the year 41 0. Abbe Martin published
the canons of the Councils of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea and
Nicaea and portions of the canons of the first Council of
Antioch which condemned the heresy of Paul of
Samosata. Paul de Lagarde published the canons of the
third Council of Carthage which was attended by eighty-
seven bishops in the time of St. Cyprian. The canons of
this Council, which had been translated from Latin into
Greek, were also translated from Greek into Syriac by
Jacob of Edessa in 687.

In 1875, Samuel Perry 1 published the Acts of the
Second Council of Ephesus (449) according to the only
two copies of the British Museum, MSS. 14530 and
12156, both of which are imperfect. They were also
translated by Paul Martin into French and by Hoffmann
into German. Both copies contain details of the debates
in the Council recorded verbatim, not to mention the
documentary proofs which could not be found in the
minutes of the other Councils which have reached us.
The two valuable Zafaran vellum MS. 1 44 transcribed in
the tenth century 2 and MS. 245 transcribed between the
eighth and ninth century, as well as the Paris MS. 62,
contain canons included in a letter of the Italian bish-
ops to the bishop of the East, i.e., of Antioch. These
MSS. also contain canons derived from the episdes of
IgnaUus the Illuminator, a summary of the letter of
Peter of Alexandria about those who renounce their
faith under duress, questions answered by Timothy of
Alexandria and episdes of Athanasius of Alexandria by
Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, Damasus and Gregory of
Nyssan containing a few canons, forty-five canons en-
acted by the Orthodox bishops, seven questions an-
swered by the bishops Constantine, Antonine, Thomas,
Pelagius and Eustathius in the third decade of die sixth
century, eight canons included in the letter of the
Fathers to two priests in Cililia both named Paul, from
canons included in a letter by Constantine bishop of
Loadicea to Anba Marcus the Isaurian, eleven canons
contained by the letter of a bishop to some of his friends,
and five canons enacted by Theodosius of Alexandria
and twelve canons enacted by Basilius for the monks. 1
Furthermore, the two former Zafaran manuscripts con-
tain the canons made by Rabula, metropolitan ofEdessa,
for monks and priests, the canons ofjohn of Talla and
Sergius bar Qasir and the numerous answers ofjacob of
Edessa to the different problems presented to him by
some of his contemporaries. These manuscripts are to
a small extent, incomplete.

Our library at Hims contains a unique and valuable
copy completed in 1204. It is comprised of the Testa-
ment of Our Lord, the apocryphal canons of the Aposdes,
known as the DidascaliaApostolorum, canons of the lesser
Councils, canons of the principal Councils of Nicaea,
Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon, canons of the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Syrian Synods, namely the Synod of the Monastery of
Mar Matta (St Matthew) held at the beginning of
November 628 in which Marutha of Takrit and his
bishops made twenty-four canons; the Synod of Kafmabu
in the province of Saruj held byjuijis (George), patri-
arch of Antioch in 785 and which issued twenty two
canons; the Synod of Beth Batin in the province of
Harran held by Cyriacus patriarch of Antioch in 794 in
which he (the Patriarch) enacted forty-six canons; the
Synod of Harran held by the same Patriarch and issued
twenty-six canons; the Synod of al-Raqqa (Callinicus)
held by the Patriarch Dionysius I of Tall Mahre in
October 818, and in which he enacted twelve canons;
the Synod of the Monastery of Mar Shila near Saruj held
in 846 by the Patriarch John IV issued in twenty-five
canons followed by a table of the degrees of consanguin-
eous relations which prohibit marriage; the Synod of
Mar Zakka near al-Raqqa held by the Patriarch Ignatius
II in 878 that issued twelve canons of which the first, the
second and part of the third were lost; the Second
Synod of Mar Shila held by the Patriarch Dionysius II in
896 which enacted twenty-five canons; the covenant
made on April 22, 914 by the abbot of the Monastery of
Mar Matta and his monks with two bishops of the same
Monastery as well as the parishioners of the dioceses of
Nineveh, Mosul, Banuhadra and Marga for
Christophorus Sergius II of Takrit, bishop of the Mon-
astery of Mar Matta, Nineveh and Mosul in their oppo-
sition of the Maphrian Denha III; the Synod of Mar
Hananya in Mardin held by Mar Yuhanna (John),
bishop of Mardin in 1 156 and attended by the Maphrian
Ignatius I, and few bishops who issued forty canons of
which the fourteenth and seventeenth canons were
dropped from this copy; and thirty-one canons made by
John for the Monastery of Mar Hananya and all the
monasteries of its diocese. 4 This manuscript also con-
tains a tract on the division of inheritance according to
the Islamic Sharia as well as the manumission of slaves
in nineteen pages, the hundred canons of Christian
Kings, the laws of the emperors Constantine.Theodosius
and Leo, one hundred fifty-seven in number covering
fifty-one pages; a treatise on the policy of the Church to
consolidate peace in twelve pages and twelve questions
and their answers by Patriarch Cyriacus. Of this signifi-
cant collection nothing could be found in the libraries
of the West except the canons of Patriarch Cyriacus. 5 In
the East we found only few canons of Patriarch Jurj is
(George) in the copy of Basibrina which was lost in
World War I, but a second copy is preserved in our
library. Another manuscript in the Zafaran Monastery
contains twenty-four selected canons abridged from the
canons of the Synod of the Monastery of Mar Hananya.

According to Bar Hebraeus, the Patriarch John bar
Shushan made twenty-four canons for himself and the
bishops, which we believe have been lost except the
nineteenth canon. Also, lost to us are the twenty-nine
canons issued by Michael the Great at the Monastery of

Mar Hananya as well as the twelve canons which he
enacted for the monks of the Monastery of Mar Matta,
the seven canons issued by the Patriarch John XIII bar
Madani which have been mentioned, particularly the
seven canons from our former collection. 6 Further-
more, some of the Easterners alluded to civil laws
enacted by Ambrosius of Milan at the request of the
Emperor Valan tinus for the governors of the provinces.

In his noble book, the Hudorye (Nomocanon), Bar
Hebraeus summarized the ecclesiastical and civil can-
ons. The book is divided into forty chapters in which the
author included the lost canons of George, bishop of
the Arabs (d. 725) as well as those made by Michael the
Great. He also included the eight canons of the Synod
of Kafrtut held by the Patriarchjohn IV in February 869
to regulate the relations between the Apostolic See and
the maphrian of the East. To these he added unknown
canons, some of which are of his own composition. He
elaborated and excelled in writing his chapters on the
civil laws to which he added his own juristic opinions
which rendered his book a constitution for the church.

In the following generations, Ignatius bar Wuhayb,
patriarch of Mardin, issued in 1304 ten insignificant
canons; Patriarch Dawud Shah made three canons for
the diocese of Hattakh in 1576; 7 Patriarch Peter IV
issued ordinances and canons for the administration of
the Church of Malabar in India in the Synod of
Mollamtortiin 1877; PatriarchAbd Allah II made thirty-
nine canons in the Synod of Alway in Malabar in August
1911. Finally, we made one hundred and forty-four
canons in both Arabic and Syriac in the first Synod
which we held at Hims in February 1933. 8

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
Ascetic Books

When monasticism and monastic orders spread, as is
known, in the Syrian Church, theplantoffaithwas in its
prime and hundreds of solitary cells and monasteries
were established in every region and land filling the
mountains and plains, it became necessary to set up
rules, ordinances and laws for the organization of these
cells and monasteries. It was also necessary to write
ascetic literature to nourish and lead thousands of
ascetics in the straight path of the authors of this
literature. Because of their literary merits and elo-
quence, these works were recognized as part of the
Syriac literature. These works are:

1) The Homilies of the Persian Bishop Aphrahat
written between 337 and 345 and divided into twenty-
three theological and ascetic treatises.

2) The Book of Perfect Life and the Explanation of the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Commandments of Our Lord originally consisted of
thirty theological and ascetic treatises. MS. 180 of the
Jerusalem Library contains a unique imperfect and
misarranged old copy of this book transcribed in the
ninth century in the Estrangelo script on vellum. Due to
the ignorance of the binder, this already imperfect copy
also became misarranged. Two-thirds of it has been lost
and only one hundred and eighty-two pages survive
containing the following:

Treatise No. 8 on those who give to the poor all they
possess;

Treatise No. 9 on righteousness and the love of the
righteous and the prophets;

Treatise No. 10 on the benefit we gain when we
endure hardships as when we do good (the latter also
discusses the fasting of the body and the soul);

Treatise No. 11 on heeding the scriptures;

Treatise No. 12 on the open and the private worship
in the Church;

Treatise No. 13 on righteous conduct;

Treatise No. 14 on the righteous and the perfect;

Treatise No. 15 on Adam’s process of generation; 1

Treatise No. 1 7 on the Passion of Our Lord through
which we gained salvation;

Treatise No. 19 on the excellence of the path of
perfection;

Treatise No. 20 on the great obstacles which stand in
the way of the City of Our Lord;

Treatise No. 21 on Adam’s tree;

Treatise No. 22 on the fact that religious obligations
cannot save those who perform them;

Treatise No. 23 on Satan, Pharaoh and the children
of Israel;

Treatise No. 24 on repentance;

Treatise No. 25 on the terms God and Satan;

Treatise No. 26 on the law which God made for Adam
after he had eaten from the tree;

Treatise No. 27 on the thief who was saved;

Treatise No. 28 on the fact that man’s soul is not
blood;

Treatise No. 29 on training the body by good deeds;

Treatise No. 30 on the commandments of faith and
love of solitaries.

In 1926 Rev. Mihaly Kmosko published this work in
the third volume of the Patrologia Syriaca with its trans-
lation into Latin entitled The Book of Steps. Some scholars
have even called it The Book of Ladders. However, the
correct name of the book is the one we formerly men-
tioned as quoted from the end of the Treatise No. 30.

The author of this book, as stated in its opening
chapters, is anonymous. The prime statement reads;
“This ascetic did not want his name to be written down
and that no historian has recorded any information
about him and thus we do not know his time exactly. We
only know through tradition that he was a later disciple
of the Apostles. We also realize from his words that he
wasa pioneer scholar of Syriac.” This statement requires

some consideration. The book does not precede the
fourth century and that judging from its lucid and
eloquent style it belongs to the fifth or sixth century.
Furthermore, those disciples could have not at all lived
to this era. There is, however, a marginal note on page
10 in a handwriting which I consider of the twelfth
century stating that the author is Philon the Ascetic, of
whom I found no information. 2

3) The diverse treatises, questions and answers by the
Egyptian solitaries Bacchumius (d. 346), Antonius (d.
356) and Ammonius (d. 384) who wrote letters to the
monks, Macarius the great and Egyptian (d. 390), John
the Apocalyptic ascetic of Thebes (d. 390), Macarius of
Alexandria (d. 394), 5 Isaiah of Scete at the end of the
fourth century who composed fifteen treatises, and
Euagrius Pontius (d. 399) , who was an ascetic in the
Egyptian desert and the author of the Book of the Hun-
dreds as well as other discourses and epistles, Moses of
Abyssinia at the beginning of the fifth century, Marcus
the ascetic of Tharmaka, a disciple of Chrysostom who
was an ascetic in the wilderness ofjudea or in the desert
of Scete. The latter wrote a book and seven discourses
and died after 431 . Also, Isidore of Pelusium (al-Farma)
who wrote many letters and died about the year 435,
Isaac the priest of solitary cells, Shanudin who wrote
epistles and homilies in the Coptic language (d. 466) ,
and the ascetic Isaiah II (d. 488) who moved from Scete
to Gazza and was the author of the book of homilies. 4

4) The roughly three hundred and sixty questions
answered by St. Basilius the Great and addressed to the
monks, 5 the Book of Monastic Life by Nilus, 6 (d. 430), the
recluse in Mount Sinai, who also composed twelve
discourses and more than a thousand letters of which
three or four are in Syriac, thirty stories written byAnba
Hieronymus in the year 420, 7 discourses by Paul, bishop
of Cnitos in Italy, and the friend ofjohn the Edessan
about 430, and others byjohn the Recluse, John Naqar,
the recluse in the mountain of Edessa, and Sergius the
recluse and Thomas the solitary (d. 1146). 8

5) A book on monastic life by Gregory the Ascetic, a
Persian by origin and Cypriot by residence. Gregory
graduated from the School of Edessa in the time of
Professor Musa and spent his days in the Izla Mountain. 9
He is thought to have lived in the second half of the
fourth century. Of his books only a few treatises re-
main. 10

6) The book entitled The Paradise of the Fathers by
Palladius, bishop of Helenopolis (d. 425) , published by
Bedjan, is divided into three parts, the first containing
69 stories, the second 41 stories and the third 1 7 stories.
Among the chronicles of the ascetics it also includes
wisdom by some writers. 11

Except the book of Gregory and the one entitled The
Perfect Life all of the former works were translated from
Greek into Syriac. Also should be excepted the letters of
Antoniusand Shanudin which were translated from the
Coptic language. These works contain all that which

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

impresses and affects the soul.

7) The Book, of The Perfect Christian Lifeby Philoxemus
of Mabug divided into thirteen discourses. It is indeed
the most excellent of all the books on this subject A
description of it shall be given later.

8) A book on asceticism and monasticism containing
useful lessons, counsel and exhortations for those seek-
ing virtuous life was written by Athanasius Abu Ghalib,
the solitary bishop ofjihan (d. 1177).

9) The Ethikon or the Book of Ethics by the most
learned Bar Hebraeus who wrote it in 1 279. It is divided
into four tracts in which he discusses the ways of virtue
in spiritual as well as physical life; it was specially meant to
be for the monks and generally for the pious Christian.

10) The Book of the Dove also by Bar Hebraeus which is
a short work meantto be a guide for ascetics and monks.
It is divided into four treatises.

11) Thebookletentitled The Way of Truth on spiritual
life written by Aziz bar Sobto, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d.
1482).

12) The book entitled The Spiritual Ship by Masud II
of Zaz, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d. 1512). It contains a
collection of tracts and spiritual exhortations for ascet-
ics which had been compiled by his disciple Aziz of
Midyat (d. 1482). 12

Mention should also be made here of other works
that monks were accustomed to read which dealt espe-
cially with the virtues of asceticism and orders of wor-
ship. They were: The Book of Steps or the LadderhylydiWdcnms
Climacus (d. 649), abbot of the Greek Malkite convent
of Mount Sinai; the works of Nestorian ascetics from the
end of the sixth to the end of the eighth century. These
asceticswere Ibrahim ofNaphtar, Sahduna (Martyrius) ,
bishop of Mahuza, Arnun who joined the Malkites,
Isaac of Nineveh, 13 Simon Taybutha, the ascetic physi-
cian, Yuhanna bar Fankaye, Yuhanna Dalyatha (Grape-
vine) , so nicknamed for living on grapevine products. 14
The latter is also surnamed the Spiritual Shaykh (Aged
Man). These writers probably quoted the works of
Joseph of Ahwaz and Babai the writer.

None of these ascetic works became as widely spread
as the book entitled The Way of Monasticism by an Isaac
who was bom in Qatar and became bishop of Nineveh,
and hence was called Isaac of Nineveh. This work was
translated into Greek, Arabic, Ethiopian, Latin, Italian,
French and German, 15 after it was revised by a few old
scholars, 16 who, according to Bedjan, regarded its au-
thor one of their saints. 17 One of our monks, carried too
far in his illusions about this book, even went to the
extent of distorting its translation to make it sound
“Orthodox,” as is mentioned in an Arabic copy trans-
lated by Father Jacob. 18 The (Garshuni) copy of the
Jerusalem Library, written in fine hand in 1516, is a
reproduction of this translation, 19 butwe know that the
translation itself was made by a Greek Malkite, because
it fixed the time of the author according to the calendar
used then, by stating that “He (the author) was at the

beginning of the seven thousandth year of the world”
[sic] . However, it has been established that this work
was translated from Greek into Arabic by the deacon
Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl al-Antaki (d. 1052) at the request
of Niocophor Abu al-Nasr. Al-Antaki divided it into
thirty-five chapters and called its author a saint. Two
Arabic copies of this work are extant in the convent of
the Greeks in Jerusalem. 20 This Abd Allah also trans-
lated from the Syriac a compendium of the Book of the
Egyptian Monks and its exposition by Philoxenus of
Mabug containing two hundred and fifty questions. He
also translated the epistle of Philoxenus on monastical
ranks addressed to one of his disciples. The former Book
of the Egyptian Monks is an abridgment of The Paradise of
the Fathers by Palladius and Hieronymus (Jerome), al-
though it is not mentioned in the list of Philoxenus of
Mabug’s Syriac works, nor do we believe it survived.
However, the MS. 2421 at the formerly mentioned
convent of the Greeks in Jerusalem opens with the
following statement by Philoxenus of Mabug: “When I
realized that this branch of knowledge is more useful
and of better guidance than its origin, and that it is the
essence of essences, I proceeded to translate it in order
to purify the tongue by reciting it at the rising and
setting of the sun and polish by its reading the faculties
of mind which have been rusted by sins.” This book also
contained a passage by the Spiritual Shaykh.

The Nestorians, too, were greatly interested in read-
ing the works of Bar Hebraeus, particularly his Ethikon
of which they had the oldest copy in the library of their
Catholicos in the city of Maragha and which, under his
supervision, was transcribed by his disciple the monk-
priest Joseph in 1292. 22

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
Books of General History

In the sixth century, Syriac literature reached the
height of eloquence and artistic technique. It also
occupied an eminent place in rhetoric and scholastic
theology. The language, too, flourished with its viva-
cious expressions and old style. The century was distin-
guished by its harmony and coherence of ideas, bril-
liancy of minds, and efficiency of authorship. In this
century appeared a series of greatly significant histori-
cal works which continued until later ages. Without
these historical works, many centuries would nave been
left in dense darkness, and historians of civilization
would have always regretted the loss of their contents.

It would be unfair on our part to demand from the
writers of these histories that they be conversant with
the conditions of the philosophy of history which were

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

developed much later than their time. They were not
lacking in the examination of facts, though they used
very litde analysis. As to the subject of the development
of civilization, it is the concern of our contemporaries
who are solely responsible for it. For civilization was at
the time of these historians in its beginnings and only
later began to mature. In general, Syriac histories are
solid, reliable, and trustworthy, and deserve all consid-
eration. However, the places of criticism in them are
few. These historical works are:

1 . The history of the events of Syria and Mesopotamia
from 495 to 506, which is the most accurate and com-
plete source of the wars of the emperor Anastas I and
Qabadh the Persian. It was written in Edessa about the
year 5 1 8, bu t it is ascribed by some scholars toj oshua the
Stylite, and even has been published under his name. As
a matter of fact, the author of this history is an anony-
mous professor at the school of Edessa who was prob-
ably a Malkite.

2. The anonymous history known as the History of
Edessa, which covers the period from 131 B.C. to 540
A.D. Although it is brief at the beginning, it contains a
very useful account of events from the third century on.
It is a very accurate history and an important source of
the history of both East and West. Despite his recogni-
tion of the Four Councils, the author shows a tendency
toward Nestorianism.

3. The Ecclesiastical History of John of Ephesus, who
died around 587 is the oldest of the Syriac histories. It
is divided into three parts; the first and second run from
the time of Julius Caesar to 572 A.D. and the third
continues the chronicle until 585. The first part is lost.
Of the second, fragments only have remained and have
been published. The third is contained in a manuscript
transcribed in the seventh century, a few leaves of which
are wanting. It was published by Cureton. Despite its
disorder, caused by the misfortunes which befell the
author, this work is a very accurate history.

4. Of scarcely less value is the author’s other work,
endtled Biographies of Eastern Samtswritten between 565
and 566. In this work the author minutely discusses the
lives of the majority of ascetics whom he personally
observed. His work is, therefore, of great value. It was
twice published.

5. A collection of historical works by an anonymous
author containing a great part of the Ecclesiastical History
of Zachariah Rhetor, bishop of Mitylene, whose Greek
origin has been lost. It contains the events from 450 to
491. This collection is divided into twelve books: the
story of Joseph, the history of Sylvester of Rome, the
revelation of the repository of the bones of St. Stephen,
the history of the People of the Cave (The Seven Sleeping
Youths of Ephesus), the Henoticon of Zeno, the chronicles of
the Himyarite Martyrs, the letter of Rabula of Edessa to
Gemellinus, bishop of Perrhe (Farine), the description
of the buildings and ornaments of Rome, the delinea-
tion of the habitable world by Ptolemy, 1 the history of

the churches of Egypt and Syria in the fifth and sixth
centuries, the death of Theodosius, bishop of Jerusa-
lem, and the life story of Isaiah the Ascetic.

6. The Ecclesiastical Histories of Eusebius, Socrates,
and Theodoret of Cyrus which the ecclesiastical Syrian
historians possessed in the fifth and early sixth centu-
ries, excepting the history of Sozomen. Of Eusebius’
history, we have a copy whose transcription was finished
in 462 and is preserved in the library of Petersburg. The
translation of this history which has been twice pub-
lished 2 is distinguished for its accuracy. Moreover, the
many important differences between it and the existing
Greek text make it preferable to the latter, whose oldest
copy was transcribed in the ninth century. 5 The MS. 941
(British Museum) contains fifteen chapters of
Theodoret’s Ecclesiastical History. The Chronicle of Eusebius
was rendered into Syriac by Jacob of Edessa.

7. The history of Cyrus, the priest of Saruj or Batnan,
containing events from 565 to 588 which has been lost
to us.

8. The Chronicle of Jacob of Edessa. After revising the
Chronicle of Eusebius, Jacob’s design was to continue it
in his compendium history from the twentieth year of
the reign of Constantine the Great until 692. Michael
the Great made much use of this history, of which sixty-
seven pages only remain, published by Brooks.

9. The annals by the stylite ascetic John of Atharb (d.
738).

10 - 12. Three chronicles composed in the eighth
century by Moses of Inhil, Daniel bar Musa of Tur Abdin
and Yuhanna bar Samuel in the Western part of al-Sham.

1 3. A lengthy gen eral eccle siastical an d civil chronicle
from the Creation to the year 775 A.D. written by a
monk from the convent of Zuqnin in four books. The
first runs from Adam to Constantine the Great; the
second from Constantine to Theodosius the Less; the
third is interrupted at the time of Justin II, whose
sources shall be discussed later; and the fourth contin-
ued the chronicle from 599 to 775. In this work the
author elaborated the calamities which befell the lands
of the Eastduring the Umayyad and part of the Abbasid
eras. Assemani had erroneously ascribed this work to
Dionysius of Tall Mahre, and his error was copied by
later scholars who quoted him. The truth about the
authorship was discovered in our time.

14. A significant historical collection, mostly pub-
lished by Brooks under the title Chronica Minor am 1903.
This collection comprises four parts taken from a tran-
scribed manuscript in the eighth and ninth centuries, a
few folios of which are wanting. The first part, and the
largest, ends with the year 641; the second in 570; the
third in 636; and the fourth in 529. They are followed by
a synopsis of the history of the Councils up to the
Council of Chalcedon, a table of the Umayyad Caliphs,
and an important tract of the Arab conquest stating that
the battle of the Yarmuk took place on August 20, 636.
Half of this tract has been effaced by time. 4 This collec-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

tion also contains fragments of a compendium history
written by a Palestinian Maronite author around the
eighth century. These fragments cover the events in the
time of Muawiya I, which could also be found in the
history of Theophane, with slight difference. They also
contain a chronicle written by a monk from the convent
of Qartamin which extends to the year 846 and whose
copy was transcribed in the tenth century as well as
fragments by an anonymous author covering the period
from 754 to 81 3. 5

15. An elaborate short history written by a monk from
Qartamin. This history which extends to the year 822
also covers portions of the history of the monastery of
Qartamin and its abbots, published by this writer in
Paris in 1914.

16. The Chronography of the erudite Dionysius of Tall
Mahre, patriarch of Antioch, covering the period from
583 to 843. It is divided into sixteen books which, in
turn, are subdivided into chapters. Michael the Great
and Bar Hebraeus leaned heavily on this work of which
five pages only have remained and were published by
Assemani.

17. A lost ecclesiastical history composed by Moses
bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman and Mosul, who
died in 903.

18. The Chronicle of deacon Simon of Nisibin.

19-21. Three short chronicles written by Ignatius,

metropolitan of Melitene (d. 1064), Elijah, bishop of
Kesum (d. 1 1 71 ) and Dionysius bar Salibi, metropolitan
of Amid (d. 1171).

22. The Chronicle of Michael the Great , patriarch of
Antioch, which is a general ecclesiastical as well as a
profane history running from the creation of the world
to 1 196 A.D. It falls into four thick volumes, each page
of which contains three columns. The first column
contains the civil history; the second the ecclesiastical
history; and the third is devoted to extraordinary natu-
ral phenomena and other matters. One of the advan-
tages of this chronicle is that (he author relied on many
important sources and quoted many chronicles which
otherwise would have been lost This chronicle was
published by the Rev. Jean B. Chabot in a French
translation of the sole copy possessed by the Syrian
Church of Edessa.

23. The Civil and Ecclesiastical History of the anony-
mous Edessene author in two volumes. The first vol-
ume, in which the author distinguished the profane
from the ecclesiastical history, runs from the time of
Constantine to 1234. It was published twice. The au-
thor, an Edessene cleric who was still living between
1187 and 1234, is to be commended for his excellent
composition, accuracy, and solidity of style. He also
wrote another ecclesiastical history which has been lost.

24 - 26. The most learned Bar Hebraeus possesses an
extensive reputation as a historian. The following three
excellent histories raise him to the standard of top-level
historians. They are:

1 . The Chronography from the Creation to 1 285 A.D.,
in which he abridged the history of Michael the Great,
enriched it with useful historical information, and con-
tinued it to his own time, using Syriac, Arabic and
Persian sources. Later, it was continued to 1296 by his
brother al-Safi. 6

2. Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal (Compendium History
of Dynasties), written in eloquent Arabic with a free
abridgement from his Syriac Chronography.' 1

3. The Ecclesiastical History in two books. 8 The first
book contains the history of the Patriarchs of Antioch,
preceded by a table of the names of the chief priests of
the Old Testament. The second contains the history of
Catholici and Maphrians of the East as well as Nestorian
Catholici both of which end with the 1285.

27. Short and crudely written appendages to the
Chronography as well as the Ecclesiastical History from 1 285
to 1496. The author of these appendages continued
briefly the succession of Patriarchs and Maphrians, by
adding to them short biographies. Also, he related the
invasions of the Huns, the Persians, and the Mongols
against Diyarbakr from 1394 to 1402, the calamities
inflicted by Timur Khan (Tamerlane) uponTurAbdin
( 1 395-1 403) , the murder of Nawruz, Qazan ’s war against
the Egyptians in al-Sham in 1298, and the events of Tur
Abdin and its environs from 1394 to 1493. These ap-
pendages were most likely compiled by the two priests
Isaiah and Addai of Basibrina because of their elabora-
tion on the chronicle of their country, Tur Abdin;
especially, Basibrina, and also judging from their com-
position and style with which we are familiar. These
appendages, except for the one relating to the murder
of Nawruz, have been published.

28. The author of this book has composed five Syriac
historical works as follows: 9

1 ) History of the Patriarchs of Antioch and the Maphrians
of the East from 1493 to the present;

2) Table containing the names, genealogy and short
biographies of 780 bishops of the Syrian dioceses from
the year 1200 A.D. to the present;

3) The Ecclesiastical History of Tur Abdin from 1365 to
the present;

4) A Compendium Ecclesiastical History from V28& to the
present;

5) An ecclesiastical as well as profane chronicle from
1905 to the present.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
Private History

Apart from general historical works, Syrian authors
composed private histories such as the extensive life-
stories and biographies of saints and illustrious church

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

dignitaries from 488 to 1146. Among these dignitaries
are Peter the Iberian, Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of
Mabug, Severus of Antioch, John of Talla, John bar
Aphtonya, Ahudemeh, Jacob Baradaeus, Athanasius I,
Severus of Samosata, Marutha of Takrit, Gabriel of
Qartamin, Theodotus of Amid, Jacob of Edessa, Simon
of Zaytun, John VIII, bar Abdun, and the solitary Tho-
mas of Shamrin. An account of them will be given later.

In this chapter we shall discuss the history of the
Himyarite martyrs as well as seven biographies (except-
ing the fourth one) of famous dignitaries which have
come down to us. They are:

1 ) History of the Orthodox Arab Himyarite male and
female martyrs including the names and chronicles of
472 of them who had been tortured first by Dhu-Nuwas
and then by Masruq the Jewish King in Najran between
520 and 524. We think that this unique and interesting
work was written in the middle of the sixth century.

2) A short biography of Severus Moses bar Kifa,
metropolitan of Baremman (d. 903) , a copy of which is
incorporated in his book, The Reasons of Festivals or Festal
Homilies for the Whole Year along with other homilies. 1

3) The biography of John, metropolitan of Mardin
(1125-1165), composed shordy after his time and in-
cluding his noble deeds. It also contains the names of
the monasteries and churches which he builtorremod-
eled, thus enhancing the prestige of the diocese. Only
three copies remained of this long biography; one is in
the Vatican, MS. 96 published by Assemani, the second,
imperfect, is at our library in Hims and was transcribed
in 1602, and the third is a short copy contained in MS.
297 at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris which we
have abridged, translated into Arabic and published
with much additional information in our book Nuzhat
al-Adhhan fi Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran, the History of the
Zafaran Monastery (pp. 5 2-62). 2 Another short version
of this biography is contained in MS. 297 of the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

4) A treatise composed by Michael the Great contain-
ing the biography of Dionysius Jacob bar Salibi, metro-
politan of Amid (d. 11 71), his works and feats. This
treatise which Michael mentioned in his chronicle (vol-
ume 2, p. 699) has been lost to us.

5-6) Two biographies of the Maphrians of the East
Gregorius bar Hebraeus and his brother Barsoum al-
Safi composed in the dodecasyllable me ter (the Sarujite
meter) by Gabriel, metropolitan of the Jazira (1288-
1295), in 145 pages.

7) An elaborate biography of Patriarch John XIV,
known as ibn Shay Allah (d. 1493), composed by some
of his disciples in 1497 in 15 pages. 3 There is also
another biography of him which is longer than the one
incorporated by the appendage of the Ecclesiastical
History. 4

8) The biography of Masud II ofZaz, patriarch ofTur
Abdin from his birth in 1431 until he became bishop in
1482, written by his disciple the monk Aziz of Midyatin

eight pages. 5 Appended to it is the account of his
investiture as the arch-abbot of the monasteries ofTur
Abdin and his reply to it. 6

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
Diverse Historical Tracts

In many different manuscripts we have found more
than sixty Syriac historical tracts comprised of about two
hundred and sixty pages, some of which relate to the
First and Middle Ages (255-1300) and are not incorpo-
rated by history books while the others relate to later
periods, i.e., from 1300 to the twentieth century. Most
of these tracts are written in a good style, but a few are
of mediocre style, and eight are of poor and imperfect
style. As these tracts are considered historical docu-
ments, we thought it profitable to give a brief account of
each one of them as follows:

1 ) A list con tain ing the names of 87 bishops who held
the first Council of Carthage in 255 A. D., the 13 bishops
of the Council of Ancyra, the 22 bishops of the Council
of Neo-Caesarea held in 314, the 29 bishops of the
Council of Antioch held in 341, and the 16 bishops of
the Council of Gangara held in 364 1

2) The rebuilding of the Monastery of Mar Basus by
Peter ibn Yusuf of Hims about 480 A.D. 2

3) The account of John III, patriarch of Antioch,
about the false ordinations instituted by the Julianists
from 549 to 587 3 and a letter by eight Orthodox bishops
to the monasteries of the province of Amid around 532. 4

4) One hundred and ninety monasteries of the land
of al-Sham particularly its southern Arab province be-
tween 560 and 570. 5

5) The Synod of Mar Matta (St. Matthews Monastery)
and the signatures of its members in 628.®

6) The names of about seventy bishops who lived in
the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries whose names
were mentioned in the Book of Life of Zaz.

7) The purchase of Dayr al-Suryan (the Monastery of
the Syrians) in Egypt in the middle of the sixth century. 7

8) Signatures of the forty-eight bishops who attended
the Council of al-Raqqa in 81 8. 8

9) The opposition of the monks of Mar Matta Mon-
astery and the inhabitants of Nineveh to Maphrian
Denha III in 914.

10) The building of the churches of the Virgin, the
Apostles and Ahudemeh in 1046 by the deacon
Theodorus of Takrit. 9

11) The immigration of seventy monks to the Syrian
Monastery in Egypt and the care taken of its library by
the monk Barsoum of Marash in 1084. 10

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

12) The invasion of the Turks of the Monastery of
Qartamin in 1100. 11

13) The chronicles of three bishops of Jerusalem by
the monk Michael ofMarash in 1138. 12

14) The biography of Ignatius III bar Kaddana writ-
ten by his successor Ignatius Romanus in 1138. 13

15) The calamity of Edessa in 1144, the second
crusade and the feats of Ignatius Romanus by Ignatius
V Sahdo, metropolitan ofjerusalem, which he recorded
in 1146. 14

16) Building of the Altar of the Monastery of St.
Bahnam in 1 164 15 and the building of Mar Gewargis
(George) Monastery in Mardin by the deacon Abu Ali in
1169. 16

17) The exploits of AI Tuma of Basi'brina and their
contribution to their village, 1166. 17

18) The works of Bar Salibi (d. Il7l). 18

19) The letter of Bar Wahbun to the Patriarch Michael
about 1186.

20) The epidemic which caused the death of thirty-
five monks of the monastery of Qartamin in 1199.

21) The ordination ofjohn XII and his visit to Amid
in 1209 written by himself. 19

22) The chronicles of Mina, metropolitan of Amid,
and his family as well as the destruction of four churches
composed by the two monks Abu al-Faraj ibn Abi Said al-
Amidi and Bacchus of Beth Khudayda between 1206
and 1 224. 20

23) The covenant given by Ignatius III to Basilius
Yusuf, metropolitan of Khabur, in 1231.

24) An account of some Tatar invasions written by
the priest Yeshu of Hisn Kifa in 1235 and Tamerlane’s
destruction ofal-Sham (Syria) by Cyril, metropolitan of
Cyprus, in 1401. 21

25) The building of the Monastery of Mar Abai and
the Monastery of al-Amud (St. Michael in Mardin) by
the Rabban Musa bar Hamdan as well as the churches
of Diralya, Dunaysar, Qellith and Rumania between
1250 and 1257. 22

26) Chronographical tractates from 1257 to 1373. 25

27) The obituaries of nearly a hundred patriarchs,
maphrians and bishops from 1283 to the present, in-
cluding two obituaries written in 591 and 903. 24

28) Table containing the bishops under Patriarch
Nimrud in 1292. 25

29) A treatise on the two Hebraeus brothers by the
deacon Bahnam Habbo Kanni in 1292. 26

30) The proclamation of Michael II to the dioceses in
the land of the Greeks in 1295.

31) The Mongol’s invasion of Mosul, Arbil and the
Monastery of Mar Bahnam in 1295. 27

32) The war of the Mongolian Kings, Argon and
Qazan, against the Egyptian armies. Also the exploits of
the Maphrian Barsoum al-Safi written in 1300. 28

33) The election of Patriarch Ismail in 1333. 29

34) An account of the pillage of the church of the
Forty Martyrs in Mardin in 1333 written by the monk

Yeshu bar Khayrun. 30

35) The destiny of church vessels as well as the books
of the patriarchal convent of Mar Barsoum written by
the monk Ibrahim of Mardin as related by the priest
Aaron of Arzenjan in 1365.

36) An account of the calamity of the monk Daniel of
Mardin written by himself in 1382. 51

37) Tamerlane’s invasion of the Monastery of
Qartamin. Also the names of the bishops and the forty
monks who suffocated from smoke in 1 394. 32

38) The genealogies and chronicles of the Patriarch
Ibrahim II, Bahnam, Khalaf, Yuhanna XIV, Nuh, Yeshu
I and the Maphrian Barsoum al-Madani, mostly of their
own composition from the year 1400 to 1518.

39) The calamities which afflicted the Christians in
Kharput, Melitene in the years 1311, 1399, and 1451
recorded by Joseph, metropolitan of Kharput and
Karkar, and others. 33

40) The account of the death of Dionysius Malke
Zuqaqi I, metropolitan of Madan, in 1465, composed by
his disciple.

41) The virtues of the ascetics of Tur Abdin written
by Dawud of Hims in 1 466. M

42) The noble deeds of George, bishop of the Mon-
astery of Qartamin, which happened in Jerusalem in
1490, together with the deeds of Ibrahim Awad, metro-
politan of Hisn Kifa which took place at the Monastery
of the Cross. 35

43) The chronicles of Dawud of Hims of himself as
well as of the Patriarch Jacob I shortly before 1500. 36

44) The political events of Mesopotamia together
with the conditions of the bishops and monks of Tur
Abdin from the years 1501 to 1510 recorded by the
monk Aziz of Midyat in four useful treatises. 37

45) A table of the Patriarchs of Antioch from 1495 to
1661 as well as the Patriarchs of Tur Abdin to the year
1571. 38

46) An account of the consecration of the Chrism by
Patriarch Nuh at the church at Hims in the year 1506
written by the priest Isa of Hims. 39

47) The invasion of Tur Abdin in 1394 and 1505.

48) The Turks’ occupation of Mardin in 1517 re-
corded by the priest Simon Shumays al-Qusuri.

49) The genealogy ofjohn of Karkar, metropolitan
ofjerusalem and Tripoli, and his martyrdom in 1587. 40

50) The deeds of Patriarch Dawud Shah, his death
and the death of three church fathers of his own family
of the House of Nur al-Din 1583-1 639 . 41

51) An account of the building of the Monastery of
Mar Zakka in Karkar in the year 1588 as well as the
reconciliation of the Patriarchs Pilate and Hidayat Al-
lah in 1593 by Gregorius Vaness of Wank of the House
of Najjar, bishop of Cappadocia and then Edessa. 42

52) The building of the Church of Mar Zayna in
Qaraqosh in 1589 and 1738.

53) The biography of Ephraim of Wank, metropoli-
tan of Hattakh, together with the conditions of some

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

monasteries as well as the famine in his time from his
own composition, 1638-1661.

54) A compendium of the History of the Malabar
Church from the Middle of the seventeenth century to
the year 1877 recorded by some Malabari priests. 43

55) An account of the chronicles of Patriarchs, par-
ticularly Juijis II (George) from 1672-1806.

56) The invasion ofTur Abdin in l7l0written by the
priest John of Basibrina.

57) The feats of the patriarchs George II, and Isaac
containing the building of churches and monasteries,
written by the Bishop Isa and the Chorepiscopus Yeshu
al-Qusuri in 1713. 44

58) The siege of Kirkuk and Mosul by the Persian
King Tahmasp in 1743 by the priest Habash Jumua of
Beth Khudayda as well as the famine and the heavy snow
which struck Mosul and its environs in 1 757 recorded by
the deacon Matta Najjar of Beth Khudayda. 45

59) The journey of Maphrian Shukr Allah Qasabji of
Aleppo to Malabar in 1751, of his own composition.

60) The History of the See of Antioch from 1782 to
1785 by Abd Allah Shadyan, metropolitan ofDamascus.

61) The invasion of Azekh and Isfis by the Prince of
Rowanduz in 1834 recorded by the Bishop George.

62) The chronicle of Patriarch Elias II, andjoiakim
of Hbab, metropolitan of Malabar, to the year 1845
composed byjoiakim himself.

63) The invasion of Seertand Tur Abdin by Izz al-Din
Shir and Mansur Beg the Bakhtis recorded by the priest
Mirza of Meddo in 1855.

64) The building of the church of Mar Matta (St.
Matthew’s Monastery) in 1 858 and the murder of Bishop
Denha in 1871 written by the priest Gurgis of Bashiqa
originally from Hbab in Tur Abdin.

65) The chronicles of Patriarch Jacob II, from 1866
to 1871 composed by his secretary the later Patriarch
Abd Allah II.

66) The massacre of 1 895 in Diyarbakr written by the
priest Ephraim of Midyat.

67) The autobiography of Bishop Paul, the patriar-
chal representative in Constantinople, which he com-
posed in 1912.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
The Lives of Martyrs and Saints

As a branch of history, the accounts of the lives of
martyrs and saints have a special place in all Christian
literature, first, because they are copious, and second,
because they were written by masterful authors. The
Syriac legacy is full of them. These accounts are of two

kinds, the firstwritten in Syriac in the Eastern countries
of Mesopotamia, Persia, and some parts of the country
of al-Sham (Syria); the second translated from the
Greek prevailed in Euphrates, Syria and the rest of the
country of al-Sham, the land of the Byzantines and
Egypt, at the time when Greek was the literary language
and had captured the imagination of non-Greek writ-
ers. Some of these lives were recorded either in the time
of the saints and martyrs or shortly thereafter, and are
called “biographies” because they relate the exactevents
with no addition or deduction. Others are called “sto-
ries” written at a much later period and are not free
from embellishment and additions which seeped
through narrations and tradition. However, impartial
scholarly criticism and good taste are responsible for
the sifting, giving more weight or disparaging of these
stories and for distinguishing the good from the bad.

The biographies which had been recorded in their
own time were those of Guriyya, Shamuna, Habib, the
martyrs of Samosata, the Palestinian martyrs written by
Eusebius of Caesarea, the majority of the Persian mar-
tyrs during the persecution of Shapur II, nicknamed
“He of the Shoulders,” the fifth century martyrs, except-
ing the anecdotes of Mar Bahnam, Basus and Abd al-
Masih (Ashir ) . Those which were written at a much later
period were the account of the struggle of Sharbil, his
sister Babuy, and Barsmayya, bishop of Edessa, around
the year 105. They were written after the Council of
Nicaea in the middle of the fourth century, because the
author openly states “Cosubstan tial wi th Father, ” a term
unknown in Christendom before that Council. He also
alluded to a saying of the Church Fathers which does
notsynchronizewiththatearly period, but rather agrees
with the language of the dialogue between the martyr
and thejudge. Similarly, the story of Shamuna (Shmuni),
the Maccabees, her children, and Lazarus the Priest
who was martyred under the tyrant King Antiochus
Epiphanes IV (175-164 B.C.) was recorded long after
the Christian era.

However, time was not opportune for writers of the
early period to record the struggle of their martyrs. The
scanty surviving histories were mostly drawn from the
records of the Courts which tried those martyrs, while
even scantier were the histories which had been written
at the close of the third and the beginning of the fourth
century.

The conditions for recording the Lives of the Saints
were the same. Among the records are the original
biography of Eusebius of Samosata, written in a smooth
and eloquent style by his contemporaries; the biogra-
phy of Rabula of Edessa, which is the most eloquent,
beautiful, and well-written of all biographies; and the
biography ofjohn bar Aphtonya, which is characterized
with eloquence, and immaculate style; the life story of
Pelagia the pen iten t harlot dancer of An tioch written by
the deaconjacob as well as the life stories ofTheodosius,
bishop ofjerusalem, Peter the Iberian, Isaiah the Egyp-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

tian ascetic of the country of Gazza, three biographies of
Severus of Antioch, and fifty anecdotes of the Eastern
ascetics (including some bishops) written byjohn, bishop
of Asia (Ephesus) .

Into other lives of saints and martyrs authors as well
as scribes interpolated far-fetched tales and legends,
such as the anecdotes of the ancient ascetics of the East
who shunned worldly pleasures. The East, to be sure,
was not blessed with biographers of the stripe of Palladius,
Rufinus, and Hieronymous who had personal incentive
to record the true events of their time, except for
Theodoret of Cyrus, who confined his writings to the
ascetics of Cyrus and its environs and a few other
individuals who wrote some biographies. It seems as if
the Eastern mind, while religion had the greatest influ-
ence on the souls and hearts, did not accept the life
stories of saints and martyrs unless they were embel-
lished with exaggeration. The Western mind was also
the same in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. Of
these all, the life stories of Mar Awgayn (Eugene) and
his companions (which Nestorian writers in the Middle
Ages embellished and enlarged and to which they
added some of their compatriots who lived between the
sixth and tenth centuries) as they were originally re-
corded become hard to ascertain. This ugly distortion
incited most of the Orientalist critics to deny the exist-
ence of this ascetic (Awgayn), and even became very
confused about the time in which he lived. Later, some
of our Tur Abdin authors wrote down in the eighth and
ninth centuries the biographies of Samuel and Simon,
the establishes of the Monastery of Qartamin as well as
those of its abbot Gabriel and Simon the Zaytuni who
led an ascetic life in it, and later became bishop of
Harran. They also bedecked them with fabulous stories.
Some authors commented on these stories in the begin-
ning of the twelfth century. Likewise, the life story of
Mar Barsoum, the ascetic of Samosata, was garnisned
with similar legends. The critic, however, has much less
to say about the story of Mar Matta (St. Matthew) the
ascetic and the struggle of Bahnam and his sister Sarah,
which were written around the seventh century. They
have also less to say about the life story of the ascetic
Aaron of Saruj which Francois Nau thought was com-
posed in the ninth century, and Baumstark in the
seventh century. We are of the opinion that it was
written before that date (the seventh century). 1

Of the lives of saints and martyrs which we could not
ascertain is the story of Abhai the ascetic who came from
one of the villages of Mardin. Abhai abandoned the
world, became bishop of Nicaea, but had recourse to
ascetic life in the mountain of Karkar and built a
monastery, where he died in 455, which bore his name,
but which was also known as the “Monastery of Lad-
ders.” In 1 185, the Patriarch Michael the Great revised
and arranged the story of Abhai, but did not touch the
interpolations in order to keep the origin intact. There
is also a poem in praise of Abhai said to have been

composed in the twelve-syllable meter byjacob of Saruj
or others. Although this bishop (Abhai) was a friend of
emperor Theodosius II, according to his story, no one
of the old historians bothered to mention him, even the
table of the bishops of Nicaea does not include his
name. Nevertheless, we do not doubt his existence and
ascetic life, but doubt the time in which he lived and the
activities ascribed to him during his episcopate.

What should be noticed in this regard is the distor-
tion by the early heretics, the malicious enemies of
Christianity, of the chronicles of the righteous Apostles.
These heretics fabricated stories into which they in-
jected their poisonous principles under a cover which
cannot be detected by the simple, but which is obvious
to the intelligent. The influence of these heretics could
be seen in the life stories of the Apostles Peter, Paul,
John, Thomas, and particularly Matthew. These stories
came down to us in Syriac or Arabic.

Some of these biographies or stories are lengthy. For
instance, the biography of Ibrahim Qayduni is 35 pages
long, the biographies of St. Ephraim, John the Less, and
Chrysostom are 40 pages each, those of Eusebius of
Samosata and Rabula are 53 pages each, those of
Pacchomius, Abhai, Aho, and the Zaytuni are 58 pages
each, that of Qaradagh is 65 pages, of John of Talla 70
pages, of Saraphion 78 pages, of Simon bar Sabbai 79
pages, of Theodotus 80 pages, of Aaron 16 chapters, of
St. Antonius 120 pages, of Simon the Stylite 143 pages,
of Peter the Iberian 144 pages, and that of Barsoum is
180 pages. Some of these biographies, such as those of
the Iberian, Marutha of Takrit, and Theodotus, are
fraught with historical, geographical, and ritual profits
which enhance their literary value. Wc may divide this
chapter into four parts:

SECTION ONE

The Lives of the Martyrs of Edessa, Samosata
and Persia

Few are the acts written in Syriac of the Christian
martyrs, the heroes who fought for the cause of Chris-
tianity in Western Mesopotamia and Euphrates Syria
during the persecution of the Roman emperors, be-
cause they were mostly written in Greek. They are:

The two life stories of Sharbil and Barsmayya written
in the middle of the fourth century; the account of the
struggle of Guriyya, Shamuna and Habib of Edessa
recorded by an eye witness named Theophile in 307 or
308 and contained expressions which were legally and
officially practised. Jacob of Saruj composed two poems
in their praise. Besides, we have the life stories of Azazel
of Samosata dated 304 together with the martyrs of
Samosata Hipparchus and Philotheus and their five
companions dated 308.

On the other hand, the acts of the Persian martyrs

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

which began after the persecutions of the Roman Em-
pire were about to abate are many. The most famous of
these acts are:

1) The acts of the two brothers Ador-Baruh and
Mayhar Narsi and their sister Mahdokht in the environs
of Kirkuk in 318 composed by Gabriel the Chaldean
monk of Beth Abi (The Monastery of the Thicket) in the
first half of the eighth century.

2) The acts of Coberlaha and his sister Qazu the
children of King Shabur and that of Dadu in 332
composed by the two priests Dad Yeshu and Abd Yeshu.

3) The acts of Sabur’ bishop of Niqatur and Isaac,
bishop of Beth Selukh, Mana Ibrahim and Simon in
339. 1

4) The act of Zebina, Lazarus, Marut, Narsi, Elijah,
Mahri, Habib, Saba, Sham pita, Yunan (Jonah) and
Brikh Yeshu in 327 recorded by Isaiah bar Hadabu of
Arzun who was an eye witness.

5) The history of Beth Selukh in which the author
mentions Mana the bishop and the nuns Thecla, Tang,
Tatun, Mama, Mezika and Anna.

To Marutha of Takrit is ascribed the composition of
the acts of the martyrs under Shapur II (He of the
Shoulders) . Furthermore, Mari ibn Sulayman, a twelfth
century historian and the deacon Amr ibn Matta al-
Tyrhani (d. 1340) 2 relate that Ahi Catholicos of
Ctesiphon (al-Madain) from 410 to 415 composed sto-
ries of the Persian martyrs and wrote a book on their
martyrdom before he became catholicos according to
the first and after he became catholicos according to
the second. However, we do not know whether any part
of these writings has been preserved.

The stories are: the account of the struggle of Simon
bar Sabbai (Son of the Dyers) the catholicos; Jidyab and
Sabina, bishops of Beth Laphet; Yuhanna, bishop of
Hormizd-Ardashir; Bolida, bishop of the Euphrates;
Yuhanna, bishop of Karkh Mishan, as well as the history
of ninety-seven priests and deacons in 341. Also the
martyrdom of Koshtazad the King’s chamberlain; Bosi,
the Chief Artisan, and his daughter, Amaryaand Muqim,
bishops of Beth Laphet; Hormizd, the priest of Shuster;
Azad, the King’s servant; Tarbu, the sister of the
catholicos, with her sister and companions. Miles, bishop
ofSus, Shahdostand hisclerical companions in 342; Bar
Shabya the abbot and the monks of his monastery in
342; the priest Daniel and Warda the nun in 343; Narsi,
bishop of Shahr Qart, and his disciplejoseph in 344; the
stories of the martyrs of Arbil and Hidyab (Adiabine)
which are: Yuhanna, bishop of Arbil, and Jacob the
priest in 344; Ibrahim, bishop of Hidyab in 345; the one
hundred twenty martyrs of Ctesiphon and its environs
in 345; Bar Baashmin, the catholicos, and his cleric
companions, Hanania of Arbil in 346, Jacob the priest
and his sister Mary the Nun from the village of Tall
Shalila in 347; Thecla the nun and her four companions
in 347; the Gaylani Martyrs, Brikh Yeshu, Abd Yeshu,
Sabur, Sanatruq, Hormizd, Hadar Sabur, Halphid, Ith

Alaha, Muqim, Halmadura and Phoebi in 351; Bar
Hadhbshabba, the deacon of Arbil in 355; Ith Alaha and
Hafsi in 356; Qaradagh, the military governor ofHidyab,
in 359 whose account of martyrdom, as some believe,
was written in the sixth century; the martyr captives of
Bazabdi in 362; Saba the youth and his companion Abai
in 363; the forty Persian martyrs including two bishops
in 376; Badmea the abbot of the convent near Beth
Laphet in 377; Acepsimas, bishop of Hanitha, in 378
and Joseph the priest and Ith Alaha the deacon in 379.

To this list should be added the story of Bahnam, his
sister Sara and their forty martyr companions around
382; the account of the martyrdom of Basus and his
sister in 388 which has been lost to us but survived in a
lengthy ode composed by the Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl
shortly before 1 404; the story of Abd al-Masih ( Ashir) of
Sinjar in 390; the martyr ascetic Phineas of Tanis at the
end of the fourth century, whose story was written a long
time after him, the martyrdom of Narsi the monk.Tataq
and the ten martyrs of Beth Garmai, the twelve thou-
sand martyrs of Kirkuk in 409; the martyrdom of Abda,
bishop of Hormizd Ardashir, and his seven companions
in 42 1 Jacob, who was cut to pieces in 42 1 ; Phiruz in 422;
Mayhar Shabur and Phethiun in 448 and the martyr-
dom of Babai, the catholicos, in 481.

SECTION TWO

Life-Stories of The Martyrs of Palestine,
Mesopotamia, Armenia, Byzantium, Egypt and
Yemen

Eusebius of Caesarea wrote the history of the Pales-
tinian martyrs (who numbered 467) during the tenth
persecution. An abridgement of his work was translated
from the Greek into Syriac shortly after its composition
and it went through two editions. It suffered a great
many alterations.

Besides this, we have the two highly embellished and
greatly exaggerated stories of the famous Marjuijis (St.
George); the martyrdom of Romanus and his compan-
ions in Antioch; the story of Shamuni of the Maccabees,
and her sons and Lazarus the priest; the account of the
martyrdom of the nun Febronia of Nisibin in 304 A.D.
composed by Thomaius the nun; the story of Agripas
and Parnitusand their twelve thousand companions, or
according to another source the account of four thou-
sand Greek and Syrians martyred in the mountains of
Ahmoy also called Hasmay or Ashuma, 1 whose story is
believed to be of Syriac origin; the martyrdom of Sergius
and Bacchus in two copies and in whose praise Sts.
Ephraim and Jacob of Saruj composed two poems; the
story of the forty martyrs of Sebaste; the stories of Thecla
the disciple of Paul, Sophia and her three daughters,
the people of the Cave (the Sleeper Youths of Ephesus)
in whose praise Jacob of Saruj composed a poem,

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Babula (Babila), patriarch of Antioch in 251, Eugene
and Pacilina the Romans in 253, Cyprian the bishop and
Justa Pictorinus, Pictor, Nicephorus, Claudius,
Deodorus, Saraphion, Papius in Carthage, Christopher
the barbarian and his companions in Lycia, Lucian and
Marcian, Paphos and his twenty-four thousand com-
panions in the village of Magdal near Antioch in 303
whose story was written five days after their martyrdom.
Other accounts immediately recorded were those of
Phrobus, Tarachus, Andronicus in 303; Barbara and
Juliana, Cyriacus and his mother which was written at
the behest of Theodoras, bishop of Konya (Iconium),
Mama and his parents, the martyrdom of Hagnes
(Agnes) the Roman virgin, the stories of Placidas (also
called Eustathaius) , his wife and children; Leontius and
his teacher Poblius (Popillius), Yuhanna of Kafr Sania
in the time ofMaximian Heracleus in 31 1 whose martyr-
dom was recorded by Eutochus, the King’s secretary,
and deposited in the city’s library. Later, the administra-
tor of Justice, John the Roman, built a church in his
name atKafr Sania in the days ofTheodosius, 2 Stratonice
and Seleucus at the city of Cyzicus; 5 Theodotus in the
city of Philippi in 331, two stories of Theodorus the
martyr ofEuchaita in 363; Plotine (Plotinus) the bishop
and confessor apostle; the story of the reputed ascetic
Mar Beth Sahdi the martyr ascribed to Chrysostom. 4 We
have found a poem in his praise. Orientalists however,
doubt his existence and the anecdote of Simon the
Aged who was martyred in the Middle Mountain. 5

We have also the stories of Mina the Egyptian who
was martyred in the year 303; Paphnotius the solitary
and his five hundred and forty-six martyr companions
in 307; Pantaleon and his companions in 309; the
martyrdom of Peter, bishop of Alexandria, in 311;
Maria the Egyptian, Cosmas and Damian and their
brothers in 306 (who was praised in a poem) ; the history
of the Himyarite martyrs who were tortured by Dhu
Nuwas and then by Masruq thejew in 5 1 9 and 524 which
reached us in a unique Syriac manuscript, the story of
Harith the Arab martyr the first part of which was
written in Syriac by Sergius orjurjis, bishop of al-Rasafa,
a contemporary of Dhu Nuwas and was later translated
into Greek.

SECTION THREE

The Life-Stories of The Holy Apostles , Patriarchs
and Bishops

Following are the life-stories of the holy Apostles and
men written in Syriac:

1) An account of the discovery of the head of John
the Baptist and its translation to Hims in the year 453.

2) The martyrdom of Peter and Paul.

3) The story ofjohn the Evangelist and his compan-
ions.

4) The life-story of Thomas the Apostle.

5) The life-story of Onesimus the disciple of Paul.

6) The life-story of Clement of Rome.

7) The life-story of Ignatius the Illuminator.

8) The life-story of Gregory Thaumaturgus.

9) The life-story of Gregory the preacher of the
Armenians.

10) The life-story ofjacob of Nisibin.

11) The life-story of Nicolas, bishop of Mira.

12) The biography of Athanasius of Alexandria writ-
ten by Amphilochus, bishop of Inconium (Konya).

1 3) An account of seven miracles by Basil of Caesarea
recorded by his successor Aledius.

14) The life-story of Eusebius of Samosata.

15) The life-story of Gregory of Nyssa. 1

16) The life-story ofjohn Chrysostom. 2

17) The life-story of Ibrahim, bishop of Harran by
Theodoret of Cyrus. 5

18) The life-story of Rabula, metropolitan ofEdessa.

19) The life-story of Dioscorus of Alexandria written
by his disciple Theopistus which is not free of redundan-
cies.

20) The life-story ofTheodosius of Jerusalem, writ-
ten by Zachariah Rhetor, bishop of Mitylene.

21) The life-story of Peter the Iberian, bishop of
Mayuma translated into Syriac from a lost Greek source.

22) The life-story ofjacob of Saruj.

23-24) Two accounts, one short and the other long,
of the life of Philoxenus of Mabug, the latter of which we
found in Basibrina, rendered it into Arabic and pub-
lished it twice. The Syriac text was later published by
Mingana. Most likely it was composed long after the
death of this saint with additional information con-
nected with his remains in the middle of the twelfth
century.

25-27) Three biographies of Severus of Antioch, the
first of which was written in Greek by Zachariah, bishop
of Mitylene, in the year 515 or 516. In it Zacharias
defended him by refuting the allegation and
impugnations of his adversaries. This biography stops at
the date of his elevation to the patriarchate. The second
came from the pen ofjohn, abbot of the Monastery of
Aphtonya, and it discusses his participation in doctrinal
disputes in particular. It was translated into Syriac by
Sergius bar Qasir, bishop of Harran. The third is short
and anonymous. 4

28-29) Two biographies of John of Talla, the first
written by John of Asia and the second written in more
details by his companion, Elijah the monk.

30) The life-story of Simon of Beth Arsham, the
Persian contestant byjohn of Asia.

31) The life-story of Ahudeme, the catholicos as-
cribed to Marutha of Takrit. 5

32-33) Two biographies ofjacob Baradaeus, the first
written byjohn of Asia, and the second, which is more
detailed, written after 622 or 741 A.D.

34) The history of John of Gazza, bishop of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Hephaestus in Egypt

35) The history of Kashish, bishop of the island of
Chios.

36) The life-story of Athanasius I, patriarch of
Antioch. 6

37) The life-story of Athanasius’ brother, Severus,
metropolitan of Samosata. 7

38) The biography of Marutha of Takrit by his succes-
sor, Maphrian Denha. 8

39) The life-story of Gabriel, bishop of Qartamin, by
a monk from his convent. 9

40) The life-story of Theodotus of Amid written by
the priest Simon of Samosata as related to him by his
disciple, Joseph the monk. 10

41) The biography of Jacob of Edessa. 11

42) The life-story of Abhai, bishop of Nicaea

43) The life-story of Simon bar Zaytuni, bishop of
Harran, by a monk in the monastery of Qartamin. 12

44) The story of Hanania, metropolitan of Mardin
and Kafartut. 15

45) The biography of John VIII bar Abdun the
confessor, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1031). 14

We also have short and unauthenticated biographies
of Dionysius the Areopagite, Julius of Rome, Gregory
Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, all of
which, with other biographies have been erroneously
ascribed to Jacob of Edessa.

SECTION FOUR

The Life-Stories of Ascetics, Anchorites and
Others

Following are surviving life-stories of Syrian ascetics
written in Syriac:

1 ) The life-story of Ibrahim Qayduni which has been
erroneously ascribed to St. Ephraim. 1

2) The life-story of Julian the Aged as related by his
disciple Acacius, metropolitan of Aleppo. 2

3-4) Two accounts of the life of St Ephraim written
long after his time with added information. 5

5) The life-story of Rubil the ascetic who lived in the
monastery of Umrin. 4

6) The life-story of Aaron, the ascetic of Saruj, in the
lands of Claudia (d. 389) written by his disciple Paul. 5

7) The life-story of Awgayn (Eugene) the Copt

8) The story of Matta (Matthew) the ascetic in the
mountain of al-Phaph at the end of the fourth century. 6

9) The life-story of Ibrahim the Ascetic who lived in
the Lofty Mountain (d. 409) by his disciple, Bishop
Stephen. 7

10) The story of Samuel al-Mashtini in 409. 8

11) The life story of the ascetic physician Demete of
Amid (d. ca 410) written long after his death. 9

12) The life-story of Malke of Qulzum (Clysma)
written far after his time.

13) Jacob the recluse in the convent of Salh (d.
421). 10

14) The story of Simon of Qartamin (d. 433). 11

15) The story of Asius (Asya) the ascetic. 12

16) The story of Isaiah of Aleppo.

1 7) The story of Daniel ofjalsh (d. 439) written by St.
Jacob the Doctor. 15

1 8) The story of Aho (c. 457) written expertly shortly
after his time about the sixth century. 14

19) The story of Simon the Stylite most likely written
by Cosmas the priest. It contains his miracles. Jacob of
Saruj composed two poems in praise of Simon the
Stylite.

20) The life-story of Barsoum, chief of the ascetics (d.
458), written by his disciple Samuel the priest. 15

21) The story of Hanania (d. 500) composed by
Jacob of Saruj. 16

22) The life-story of Simon of Kafr Abdin. 17

23) The story of Talya the ascetic youth preserved in
the unique manuscript 535 in Birmingham.

24) An innovated life-story of John bar Aphtonya
composed by a scholar monk of his monastery. 18

25) The life-story of Ottel from a village near the
town of Doliche. 19

26) The life-story ofjohn Kafani in the Monastery of
Zaz in Tur Abdin, written after the sixth century and
commented upon in 1198. 20

27) The life-story of Lazarus of Harran. 21

28) The life-story of Qawma the stylite in Miyafarqin
whom we believe was a seventh-century ascetic. 22

29) The life-story of Nathaniel the ascetic who is
either the one mentioned in the story of Qawma or in
the work of Palladius (p. 56) . His lifestory, however, was
found in a unique manuscript at the Monastery of Mar
Malke in Tur Abdin.

30) The life-story of Thomas the solitary (d. 1146). 25

We also have the life stories of many ascetics written

byjohn of Asia from the end of the fifth century to the
year 573; and eight stories ofYareth, Zia Shalita, Jonah,
Eulogius, Moses, Daniel and Benjamin - but we doubt
the authenticity of their doctrine, condition and time.

Following is a list of the histories of the Egyptian
ascetics, most of which were translated from the Greek
while only a few were translated from Coptic to Syriac:

1) The story of Paul, the first of the ascetics, written
by Hieronymus.

2) The life-story of Bacchmius by one of his contem-
poraries.

3) The life-story of Yuhanna the ascetic who lived in
a well during the persecution.

4) The life-story of Antony the Great by Athanasius of
Alexandria.

5) The life-story of Macarius the Greatof Alexandria.

6) The life-story of Paul the Simple the disciple of
Antonius. 24

7) The life-story of Euagrius. 25

8) The life-story of Bishwai byjohn the Less.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

9) The life-story of Saraphion. 26

10) The life-story of Isidore.

11) The life-story ofjohn the Less.

12) The life-story of Marcus ofTharmaka.

1 3) The life-story of Paul the famous ascetic from the
town of Tanwah written by his disciple Ezekiel from a
neighboring village. 27

14) The life-story of Daniel of Scete and the virgins
who became his disciples. 28

15) The life-story of Father Daniel and Eulogius the
sculptor. 29

16) The life-story of Eugenius the Egyptian.

17) The life-story of Shanudim. 50

18) The life-story ofjohn Camu excellently trans-
lated from the Arabic into Syriac in the third decade of
the thirteenth century except for one word which the
translator mis-translated. 31

19) The life-story of the martyr ascetic Moses the
Abyssinian. 32

20) The life-story of Isaiah the ascetic in the land of
Gazza written by Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene. 35

21) The life-story of a deacon who was at Qanubin
and a virtuous bishop who sinned and then repented.

In the earlier periods of Christianity Syrian scholars
translated into Syriac the history of the Egyptian fathers
known as the Lau.sians by Palladius (d. 425). It was re-
translated by Hannan Yeshu, the Chaldean monk of
Beth Abi, in the middle of the seventh century under
the title The Paradise and spread in the East.

The Syrian scholars also translated the history of the
monks by Rufinus of Achille (d. 412) as well as the
stories of the ascetics of the Egyptian desert of
Hieronymus (d. 420).

The stories which have been translated from the
Greek are:

1) The miracle of the Virgin in Euphemia.

2) The history of Hierotheus of Athens.

3) The history ofjohn the Roman known as the Son
of the Kings.

4) The Chronicles of the sons of the nobles of Rome
who abandoned the world.

5) The life-story of Archilides of Constantinople who
exercised ascetism in Palestine under Gratianus, and
Valentianus. Originally his story was written in Coptic.

6) The story of the two brothers Maximian and
Domitian, the sons of Valentinus and Isodorus, written
by the Anba Bishwai.

7) The life-story of Alexius the Roman (the Man of
God) in Edessa whose story was written in the middle of
the fifth century.

8) The life-story of Paul, bishop of Cnotus in Italy,
who abandoned his See after holding it only two weeks
to live a life of ascetism in Edessa in the time of Rabula

9) The life-story of Jacob the Wanderer.

10) The life-story of Martinianus.

11) The life-story of Grasmius who died in the begin-

ning of the reign of Zeno. His story was written about the
year 525.

12) The history of Xenophon the noble and his two
sonsjohn and Arcadius.

1 3) The story of a solitary who dwelt in the trunk of
a tree.

14) The story of Andronicus and his wife Athanasia
in Antioch.

15) The story of Hananya and his wife Mary from
Jericho.

16) The life-story of Eusebius of Pheonicia.

1 7) The life-story of Marcus the merchantand Gaspar
the pagan who embraced Christianity.

18) The life-story of Cyrianus.

19) The life-story of Peter the Rich African Patrician
who did not give alms.

20) The account of the discovery of the Cross by
Helen the Queen.

21) The story of the picture of Christ drawn by the
Jews at Tiberias which is in fact a message written by
Philotheus the deacon. 34

The following are histories of anchorites:

I ) The story of Marina,

2-3) The two stories of Leonsimus the daughter of
Kings and the four hundred ascetics,

4) The life-story of Eupraxia, her parents and her
holy women companions in the days of Theodosius,

5) The life-story of Pelagia the penitent dancer of
Antioch with some additions,

6) The life-story of Euphrosyne the daughter of
Paphnotius of Alexandria,

7) The life-story of Mary the Copt,

8) The life-story of Elaria, daughter of Zeno the King,

9) The life-story of Lucy the Virgin,

10) The story of a penitent virgin,

II) The miraculous life of a virgin.

The following stories whose titles we found in old
manuscripts are lost to us:

1) The story of King Abgar,

2) The story of Isaac the martyr under Decius,

3) The revelations of the saints in the time of Vale-
rian and Galian,

4) The story of Paul and his sister Juliana,

5) The life-story of Epiphanius of Cyprus,

6) The story of Isaac of the Monastery of Gabula
whom we believe lived in the second half of the fifth
century. Later, the monks of his monastery became
entangled with the heresy of the Phantasiasts,

7) The life-story of Placiduna,

8) The life-story of Andrew the martyr,

9) The two accounts of the life of Euphemia the
martyr,

10) Life-stories of the Gothic martyrs of whom we
could find no information.

In addition, the writer of the stories of Samuel and

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Simon of the Monastery of Qartamin mentioned fifty
ascetics who flourished in this monastery and were
distinguished for their piety and the miracles they
performed. The stories of these ascetics are lost to us
except for that one of the formerly mentioned Talya the
youth. 55

These biographies and life-stories excepting the life-
stories written by Palladius and John of Ephesus, total
230 in number. The number of their pages is between
5000 and 6000. We have copied the index of these life-
stories and anecdotes from six huge volumes of vellum
transcribed between the tenth and the twelfth century.
They are preserved in the libraries of Jerusalem,
Diyarbakr, London and Berlin as well as individual
copies which we found in the Zafaran Monastery, Tur
Abdin, Bartulli, al-Sharfa Monastery and Azekh. We
have also added to them the table of the life-stories fixed
by Dawud of Amid in a copy of the Holy Bible in
Basibrina transcribed from the copies of the life-stories
of saints at the Monastery of Mar Barsoum and the MS.
241 of the Zafaran Monastery which was transcribed in
1000 A.D. Of these life-stories of saints, Bedjan pub-
lished six volumes.

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
Chi Story Writing

Story writing is old in Christian literature. For the
proficiency of the Christian writers led them to traverse
this field as extensively as their fertile imagination
allowed. The little, however, which has reached us from
this art in Syriac is a translation from the Greek. It is as
follows:

1) The story of Cain’s murder of Abel written by
Symmachus. 1

2) The story of the Blessed Sons of Yunadab (the
Rechabites) ofjewish origin related by an ascetic named
Zozimus. It was translated from the Hebrew into Greek
and in turn into Syriac by Jacob of Edessa. 2

3) The story of Abraham the Hebrew Patriarch. 5

4) The story ofjoseph and his wife Asiyah (Asenath),
the daughter of Potiphar the priest of the city of Oun
(Heliopolis) , which had been incorporated by a pseudo-
writer into parts four, five and six of the first book of the
Ecclesiastical History of Zachariah Rhetor. In part four
this writer mentioned a letter written by the author to
Moses of Agel requesting him to translate this story from
the Greek into Syriac and Moses’ reply to him. 4

It is a splendid story which the translator rendered
beautifully, combining lucidity with solidness. It is com-
prised of twenty-five pages. It was translated from an old

copy in the possession of a man named Mar Abda, a
relative to the family of Baro of Ras Ayn, and was
preserved in their library. We believe that its original
was written in the fourth century. The writer calls it a
“Legend.” 5

5) The story of Pilate.

6) The story of the Discovery of the Cross by Protonice
the wife of Claudius Caesar. 6

7) The thirty-four-page story of Sylvester the Pope of
Rome and his converting and baptizing of Constantine
the Great, and his disputation with the Jewish doctors
who were delegated fromjudea to Rome and appeared
in the presence of the Emperor and the Senators with
Helen. 7

8) A fabricated historical (roman) narration which
appeared in the first half of the sixth century. It contains
the chronicles of Constantine the Great and his chil-
dren , the biography of Eusebius, bishop of Rome ( there
is no bishop of Rome of this name), his torture byjulian
the Apostate and the patience ofjubanian (Jovian)
Caesar. 8 From the historical point of view this narration
is invalid. But because of its smooth style and the fact
that it is free from Greek, it could be considered an
eloquent piece of literature. In fact, it influenced the
historians in the Middle Ages even the Arab historians. 9
To this narration should be added a treatise on the
apostasy of Julian transcribed in the seventh century.

9) The story of Honorius Caesar and the piety and
practice of ascetism which has been ascribed to him.

1 0) The story of Maurice Caesar and his assassination
with his children. 10

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN
Philosophy

Philosophy, as it is known, is a Greek science which
was born in the ancient Greek colonies in Asia Minor,
Sicily, southern Italy and northern Africa and which
grew up in Greece itself. From the Greek fountain
nations drew their knowledge, and learned men set out
in quest of Greek principles until later ages. Therefore,
the Syrians, Romans, Copts, and others did not have a
specific philosophy, and the contributions of the phi-
losophers such as al-Farabi the Turk, Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
the Persian and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) the Andalusian
are based on extensive translations and interpretations
to which they have successfully added their own opin-
ions. 1

As shall be seen later, some of our scholars had
significant expositions and commentaries on Greek
philosophy. However, the modern philosophical re-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

naissance known as Neo-Scholasticism, most of which is
the result of vigorous study of the natural sciences in
which most leading European nations participated, is
the product of the late sixteenth century. It is still in the
process of development, and, as philosophy to the
Syrians, who generally speaking were men of religious
nature, was a means notan end, their chief scholars did
not place great emphasis on it This statemen t applies to
the rest of the sciences which we shall later discuss. This
chapter shall be divided into three parts:

SECTION ONE

The Philosophical Writings of The Syrians in
General

Historians of literature opened this chapter with
Mara bar Saraphion (Serapion) of Samosata, who is
conjectured to have existed in the middle of the second
century. He was not a Christian, but he believed in the
oneness of God and considered our Lordjesus Christa
sage. He is well known for his Syriac letter to his son
which demonstrates the principles of his stoic philoso-
phy. In his letter Mara exhorted his son to control his
whims, that wealth and prestige should not influence
him because they were transient and that he should
seek wisdom and practice it for itis worth seeking. 1 Itwas
related that a friend asked him upon seeing him laugh-
ing while still jailed in a Roman prison “On your life,
Mara, what makes you laugh?” Mara answered, “I am
laughing at Time which throws back at me an evil I did
not start”

The first Christian philosophical work, however, is
Bardaysan’s Laws of the Countries. Bardaysan was an
Aramaean philosopher who embraced Christianity but
was excommunicated for his heresy. He was well-versed
in philosophical sciences and the place he occupies in
Syriac literature is beyond description. Of his works
nothing remained except this small book in which he
discusses Fortune and Fate that he dictated to Philip,
one of his disciples, or that Philip wrote as he heard it
from him in 197 A.D.

Bardaysan claimed that three factors affect the life of
man: Nature, Fortune and Will. Fortune is the power
with which God invested the stars to administer the
changing conditions in the manner which he has or-
dained for men. This influence takes place at the hour
of birth, when the different types of Fate, whether those
of happiness or unhappiness, health or sickness, be-
come consummate, according to the relationship be-
tween the stars and the elements. 2

Besides, we have from the pen of Jacob of Edessa his
treatise De Causa Ominum Causarum or The First Cause,
The Creating, and the Almighty, which is God, the Protector of
AIL According to George, bishop of the Arabs, this

treatise was the introduction to Jacob’s exposition of
the Six Days which has been lost to us. By Moses bar Kifa
we have a doctrinal, theological, and philosophical
treatise on free will and predestination. Another work
entitled Causa Causarum is by an anonymous Syrian
bishop from Edessa, mostlikely a tenth century scholar
who had knowledge of Arab mystic philosophy. In this
work the author discussed the knowledge of God by
rational and natural proofs with the exclusion of tradi-
tional proofs. He alluded vaguely to the doctrine of
Trinity and talked about the heavenly as well as the
earthly world, i.e. men, animals, and minerals. The
book is an encyclopedia containing the knowledge of
science of the Middle Ages. Finally, Bar Hebraeus incor-
porated into his two theological works The Lamp of the
Sanctuaries and The Book of Rays treatises on philosophy
and fate.

SECTION TWO

The Influence of Aristotelian Philosophy on The
Syrians

The Syrians were the first of the oriental nations to
study philosophical sciences by translating and com-
menting on the works of .Aristotle. They preceded and
even taughtthe Arabs who tackled these sciences through
Syriac translations. These sciences were transmitted
into Europe in the Middle Ages via Spain and were
studied by Western scholars.

As early as the middle of the fifth century, the Syrians
began to teach the peripatetic philosophy at the School
of Edessa. Also, they translated the Isagoge of Porphyry,
commented on it and translated it for the second and
third time. By the time the star of the priest Sergius of
Ras Ayn and the monks of the monastery of Qinnesrin
began to rise, the Syrian scholars had adhered to the
philosophical writings of John Philoponus, 1 as well as
the peripatetic and the Neo-Platonic philosophy which
belongs to Plotinus. In the second half of the seventh
century, however, Greek studies declined and the ef-
forts of the Syrian translators began to show in the ninth
and tenth centuries. They were followed by the period
of selection and compilation.

Among the scholars of the first era we mention Ibas
and his two disciples, Kumi and Probus, who translated
the works of Aristotle. Ibas, metropolitan of Edessa
(435-457) is thought to be the first to translate the
Isagoge. Then he went on to translate some of the
Nestorian writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia. Kumi
succeeded him at the end of the fifth century and a book
of his translation was found in the MS. 88 of the Seert
library which was pillaged during the last war. As to
Probus, the chief physician and the archdeacon of
Antioch, he worked on the translation of th e Isagoge, the
science of the allegorical interpretation of the Holy
Scripture and the Analytica Priora by Aristotle. 2

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

The most famous philosopher of the second era is
Sergius of Ras Ayn the Syrian (d. 532) . From his pen we
have the treatise on logic in five books addressed to
Theodore, bishop of Maru (Merv), a tract on Negation
and Affirmation, another on the Causes of the Universe
according to the views of Aristotle, a tract on Genus,
Species and Individuality, the Categories of Aristotle . Ofhis
translations, we have the Isagoge of Porphyry, the Catego-
ries of Aristotle, the Being of the World, a treatise on the
Soul, and portions of Galen’s writings. Sergius did an
excellent job of presenting the original meaning in so
clear a language that these translations are preferable
to their Latin counterparts.

In the seventh century our Monastery of Qinnesrin
attained wide fame by becoming a stopping place for
students of Greek philosophy. In 604 A.D.. its chief
professor and bishop, Severus Sabukht, began the teach-
ing of philosophy, mathematics, and theology. He also
devoted time to inviting commentaries on the remain-
ing philosophical works. We have a treatise on the
syllogism in the AnalyticaPriora of Aristotle and tracts on
the allegorical interpretation of the Holy Scripture, a
letter addressed to the priest I th Alaha (God Exists) on
the exposition of certain terms and a letter to the
Periodeutes Yunan (Jonah) on the interpretation of
some points in the logic of Aristotle. Also in this monas-
tery flourished a monk to whom is ascribed an exposi-
tion of some old commentaries on the Isagoge. It was
published by Baumstark.

The disciple of Severus Sabukht, Jacob of Edessa,
composed a significant work, the Enchiridion, a tract on
philosophical terms. Also, two poems on philosophical
subjects were ascribed to him. Besides, we have the
translation to the Syriac of the Isagoge of Porphyry by
Athanasius II of Balad, patriarch of Antioch in 645 and
another Isagoge by an anonymous Greek writer. George,
bishop of the Arabs, translated the Organon of Aristotle
and wrote an introduction to each book with commen-
taries too. Because of its importance and the exactitude
of its style, this work was greatly admired by the French
philosopher, Ernest Renan, who preferred it to all the
Syriac philosophical works which he read.* Among the
scholars who worked with philosophy during and after
this era was Ahudeme, catholicos ofTakrit (d. 575) . He
composed a book of Definitions on all parts of logic, a
treatise on Fate and Predestination, on the Soul and on
Man as the Microcosm and a treatise on the Composition of
Man as Consisting of a Soul and Body. Other philosophical
writerswere Habib Abu Raita ofTakrit (d. 829) , Nonnus
of Nisibin the Archdeacon (d. 845), Moses bar Kifa,
metropolitan of Beth Remman (d. 903), who, accord-
ing to Bar Hebraeus, wrote a commentary of the Dialec-
tics of Aristotle, and the two monks, Raphael 4 and
Banyamin. 5

From the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century
Syrian philosophical scholars whether from Baghdad
or T akrit, excelien tly tran slated philosophical an d medi-

cal works. These scholars were Abu Zachariah Denha
the Syrian dialectician (d. 925), Yahyaibn Adi (d.974),
Abu Ali Isa ibn Zura (d. 1008), Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan
ibn Siwar al-Khammar and Isaac ibn Zura (d. 1056). 6
They were well-versed in both Syriac and Arabic and
some had mastered Greek. Their works and translation,
however, did not fall within the scope of this work. 7

Of the scholars who concerned themselves with phi-
losophy in the fourth and last era are Dionysius bar
Salibi, metropolitan of Amid, who wrote a commentary
in 1 148 on the Isagoge of Porphyry, commentaries on the
Categories, the Allegorical Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
and the Analyticot Aristotle. Other scholars were Gabriel
of Edessa (d. 1227), who wrote many medical and
philosophical works, Jacob bar Shakko (more correctly
Shabbo, ed.) ofBartulli (d. 1241), who wrote a compen-
dium work on logic and the definition of philosophy
and also natural mathematical and theological litera-
ture for establishing them in the Christian schools. The
person who concluded the Aristotelian philosophical
works among the Syrians was Bar Hebraeus who studied
them as adopted from the Greek and added to them
what he fancied from the writings of Arab philosophers,
Ibn Sina in particular. He wrote a valuable large ency-
clopedia entitled Hewalh Hehhemtho (Butyrum
Sapientiarum) in three volumes comprising the whole
Aristotelian discipline which he abridged in his work
Teghrath Teghrotho, (Mercatura Mercatusarum). Also,
he wrote two small works entitled The Speech of Wisdom
and The Pupils of the Eyes x two treatises on the rational
soul and philosophical poetry. In these works he at-
tained to the utmost height and eminent end. He was
also determined to write a larger work on philosophy in
which he would explain its obscurities and reveal its
secrets relying on his deduction and personal opinion,
but his death prevented the realization ofhis dream.
Beside his philosophical writings Bar Hebraeus trans-
lated from Arabic into Syriac Ibn Sina’s al-Isharat wal-
Tanbihat (The Book of Indications and Prognostica-
tions) and Zubdat al-Asrar (The Cream of Secrets) by
Athir al-Din al-Abhari. An account ofhis works shall be
given later.

SECTION THREE
Other Syriac Translations From Greek

Syrian scholars translated other philosophical and
literary works by Greek philosophers of whose writings
we found a group of treatises like the collection of
ethical and moral maxims by Pythagoras, 1 the Platonic
definitions of faith, God, Love and righteousness, 2 as
well as Plato’s advice to his disciple; the counsel of
Theano, the female philosopher;* the “Counsel of phi-
losophers on the Soul;” the “Counsel of philosophers;”
the “Life of Secundus” the philosopher; 4 discourses on

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the soul as well as philosophical maxims thought by
some scholars to be the composition of Gregory
Thaumaturgus; 5 the “Maxims ofMenander;” 6 the “Max-
ims of Xystus;” 7 a dialogue on the soul between Socrates
and Erostrophus; 8 a tract on the soul; 9 Isocrates’ dis-
course address to Demonicus; 10 a treatise ascribed to
Plutarch as well as his treatise on “de cohibenda ira;” 11
the treatise of Lucian on the “Dispraise of Calumny;” 12
and the treatise by Thamistius, unknown in Greek. 15

Some of these treatises have been abridged in order
to show their purpose. Besides, a manuscript at the
Dublin Library contains maxims of many Greek phi-
losophers with a short collection on The Desire for Pa-
tience . 14 Baumstark believes that the two treatises of
Plutarch are the translation of Sergius of Ras Ayn. Also
we have in Syriac the sayings of Aesop (Luqman the
Sage). By Theodosius Romanus, patriarch of Antioch
(d. 896) we have a treatise comprising one hundred and
twelve Pythagorean maxims to which he added a few
commentaries in Syriac and Arabic. 15 We have also
found in a manuscript in Mount Sinai, a treatise by
Plutarch, on the spoils which man gains from his en-
emies. 16 Moreover, Gottheil published portions of Syriac
translations of the writings of Appolonius Theane.

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
On The Science of Medicine

. The Syrians had special concern for the science of
medicine which they became famous for in the Orient
and which they practiced more than thousand years. In
his Syriac Chronography, 1 Bar Hebraeus mentioned the
physicians Sergius of Ras Ayn, Atanos (or Atanas) of
Amid, Phylagrius, Simon Taybutha, Gregory and
Theodosius, patriarch of Antioch and Hunayn ibn Ishaq
who along with Simon Taybutha is Nestorian. 2

From the writings of these physicians we know that
Sergius translated into Syriac a group of Galen’s works
as had been formerly mentioned. From Sergius we have
the translation ofGalen’s ArsMed.icaa.nA DeAlimenlorum
Facultatibus. Yet we know nothing of Atanas, Phylagrius,
and the bishop Gregory except that the first and the
third had a Kunnash (medical collection) mentioned by
Ibn Abi Usaybia. It is most likely that Atanas and
Phylagrius lived in the seventh century whereas Gregory
lived in the eighth. We also have a Kunnashby Theodosius
the Patriarch in which he attained to the highest achieve-
ment, and anonymous old Syriac translation of
Hippocrates’ Aphorism was published by Pognon. We
also have a large anonymous medical book consisting of

more than 600 pages written in smooth and solid style
preserved in the Library at Hims. It is slightly imperfect
at the beginning and at the end but it contains a treatise
by Hunayn. The notes on this book are written by the
deacon Basil, the son of die priest Yuhanna of Melitene,
in his own handwriting in 1224.

From the pen of the Syrian philosopher Gabriel of
Edessa (1227) we have many books on medicine and
philosophy. Bar Hebraeus was also a skilled physician
who attained to the utmost skill in medicine. He trans-
lated into Syriac Dioscorides’ treatise De Medicamentis
Simplicibus and four parts of Ibn Sina’s Canon or al-
Qanun ji al-Tibb. Of his own composition is a large
medical book containing all of the then extant medical
theories. In Arabic he wrote a digest of the great book
of al-Ghafiqi and a commentary on the Aphorisms of
Hippocrates. Further, he composed a treatise on the
advantages of the members of the body and wrote a
commentary on the Quaesliones Medicae of Hunayn to
the chapter on the antidote.

The following is a list of the Syrian physicians whom
we were able to find: 5

1. Marutha, bishop of Miyapharqin (d. 421)

2. Sergius of Ras Ayn the Archiator (d. 536)

3. Gabriel of Sinjar (d. 610)

4. Emaous the priest

5. Athanos (Atanas) of Amid

6. Phylagrius.

7. Gregory the bishop (8th century)

8. Patriarch Theodosius (d. 896)

9. Ibrahim ibn Bacchus

10. Yahya ibn Adi (d. 974)

11. Ali ibn Bacchus (d. 1004)

12. Isa ibn Zura (d. 1008)

13. Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar

14. Abu Bishr the Syrian

15. Abu al-Faraj al-Yabrudi (d. 1035)

16. Isa ibn Ali ibn Bacchus (d. 1043)

17. Al-Fadl ibn Jarir al-Takriti

18. Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Jarir al-Takriti (d. 1079)

19. The deacon Abu al-Yusr (d. 1100)

20. The priest Abu al-Faraj (d. 1 1 12)

21. The deacon Abu Sad of Edessa (d. 1138)

22. The deacon Abu Ali the chief physician (d. 1169)

23. The deacon Sahdo al-Shumanna (d. 1170)

24. Burhan the skilled physician (d. 1190)

25. Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa, (d.
1191)

26. Simon of Khartbart (d. 1207)

27. Iyawannis Mina, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1222)

28. Abu al-Hasan al-Qaysari (d. 1222)

29. Abu al-Karam Said ibn Tuma of Baghdad (d.
1223)

30. The archdeacon Abu Sad, Chief of the Eastern
physicians (d. 1224)

31. Hasnun of Edessa (d. 1227)

32. Gabriel of Edessa

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

33. Abu Salim ibn Karaba of Melitene (d. 1234)

34. Mari A1 Tuma of Baghdad (d. 1236)

35. The sage Theodore of Antioch (d. 1240)

36. Isa ofEdessa, the disciple of Hasnun (d. 1244)

37. Abu al-Khayr Sahl ibn Said A1 Tuma (d. 1245)

38. The priest Yeshu A1 Tuma ofHisn Kifa (d. 1248)

39. The deacon Aaron ibn Tuma of Melitene (d.
1252) father of Abu al-Faraj Bar Hebraeus.

40. Michael ibn Barjas of Melitene (d. 1255)

41. Abu al-Izz ibn Daqiq. of Mosul (d. 1258)

42. The Maphrian Saliba ofEdessa (d. 1258)

43. Taj al-Dawla Abu Tahir A1 Tuma (d. 1277)

44. Qufer ibn Harun of Melitene

45. Abu al-Khayr ofEdessa (d. 1284)

46. Abu al-Faraj of Melitene Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286)

47. The priest Simon A1 Tuma (d. 1289)

48. The deacon Yuhanna ibn Saru of Bartulli (d.

1292)

49. The deacon Bahnam Habbo Kanni of Bartulli (d.

1293)

50. Ishaq ibn Abi al-Faraj ibn al-Qissis ( the priest) (d .
1299)

51. The priest Jamal al-Din of Arbil (d. 1369)

52. The Maphrian Aziz of Seert (d. 1487)

53. The deacon Yuhanna of Damascus (d. 1580)

54. Patriarch Nimat Allah Nur al-Din (d. 1587)

55. Bishop Tuma Nur al-Din (d. 1592)

56. The prince Qura the archiator and contempo-
rary of Jacob of Saruj. 4

Of these physicians the ones who wrote medical
books in Arabic are: Ibrahim ibn Bacchus, Yahya ibn
Adi, Ali ibn Bacchus, Isa ibn Zura, Abu al-Faraj al-
Yabrudi, the two brothers al-Fadl ibn Jarir and Yahya ibn
Jarir.

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE
On Natural Science

Few are the Syriac compositions in natural science
which have reached us but of these a few texts on
Zoology (known as Physiology) were published by
Tychsen in thirty-two short sections in Rostock in 1 795.
Further, in the fourth volume of his Anecdota Syriaca,
Land edited a more detailed work consisting of ninety-
one chapters with acommentary on each chapter drawn
from the Holy Bible and Christian doctrines. The writer
frequen tly cites the Book ofSixDaysby Basilius of Caesarea.
To these, Land also added his own comments. We have
also a third collection consisting of one hundred and
twenty-five chapters which discuss animals, trees and
stones with some geographical observations which show

that its Nestorian author used Arabic sources. From this
collection al-Hasan bar Bahlul used some excerpts on
natural science in his Lexicon.

From the letter of Alexander to Aristotle ascribed to
Celestine, the Syrians knew the stories of legendary
animals. Further, Bar Salibi composed a treatise on the
composition of the human body, two portions of which
remain in the Oxford Library. On the same subject, the
MS 116 at Berlin contains a heptasyllabic poem, imper-
fect at the beginning, edited by Gottheil in the Hebrew
collection. An old and obscure manuscriptat the British
Museum, 1 imperfect at the beginning and the end,
transcribed in the eighth or ninth century, contains the
science of cultivation (Geoponika). It was published by
de Lagarde. Perhaps it is the translation of Sergius of
Ras Ayn who wrote a book on agriculture which had
been erroneously ascribed to Qusta ibn Luqa of Baalbak
the Malkite. The book is in Arabic. The original author
of the book, however, is Anatolius Vindanius of Beirut.
It has been four times published in Greek. In chapter
163 Photius of Constantinople mentioned that the
book contains twelve parts, but the Syriac translator
added another two chapters drawn from many sources
particularly the book entitled Veterinary Medicine by
Anatolius.

CHAPTER THIRTY
The Science of Astronomy
(Al-Haya, The Form,
i.e., of The Heavens);

Geography, Mathematics and
Chemistry

Bar Daysan was the first to write on astronomy, buthis
work was lost. It is perhaps the same work to which
George, bishop of the Arabs, alluded in his treatise on
Aphrahat’s discourses. By Sergius of Ras Ayn we have a
treatise addressed to Theodore showing the action or
influence of the moon to which he appended another
treatise on the motion of the sun. This tract was pub-
lished by Sachau. 1 From the astronomical compositions
of Severus Sabukht we have Signs of the Zodiacs of which
remained the extracts on the habitable and inhabitable
portions of the earth, the measurement of the heaven
and the earth and the space between them, the astro-
labe and a treatise on the 14th of Nisan (April), Greek
976 (665 A.D.). 2 Further we have other geographical
works such as the interesting discourse of Jacob of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Edessa on the Six Days of creation in which he used the
work of Ptolemy as his source, the discourse of David bar
Paul on the Definitions of Regions and the Alternations of
Days and Nights, and a large work on the six days of
creation by Moses bar Kifa. Moreover, the author of
Causa Causarum incorporated in part II of this book
which consists of four chapters diverse scientific infor-
mation including original as well as quoted definitions
as they were known in the land of the East in the tenth
century. These chapters also contain pictures illustrat-
ing the text

The Book of Treasures by Jacob of Bartulli contains
chapters on the Formi.e., of the Heavens on geography.
The same author also incorporated in part four of the
secondvolume ofhiswork TTieZha/ogiieshortdiscourses
on astronomy, arithmetic, surveying and music. He
drew his sources from Nicomachus, an anonymous
Pythagorean as well as Arab sciences. His purpose was to
elevate the reader through the knowledge of math-
ematics to the highest peak of philosophical thinking,
namely theology. The two works of Bar Hebraeus, The
Lamp of the Sanctuaries and the Book of Rays contained
geographical subjects, while his noble work entitled
Ascent of the Mind contained a treatise on astronomy and
cosmography. He also taught mathematics in Maragha
in 1268 and wrote a commentary on the Megiste by
Euclid. 3 Further, the second volume of P.E.M . Ber (helot’s
Chemistry in the Middle AgeA contained short tracts or
Syriac canons by a goldsmith discussing the mixing of
minerals, their coloring and the transformation of sub-
stances. These tracts are originally Greek but the Syrian
hand changed them according to the method of experi-
ment 5 As for the ancient pseudo-alchemy, the Syrians
were motivated by the Christian teaching and practice
to reject it as they also rejected the absurdities of
astrology.

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE
The Translation of Foreign
Works

Motivated by their desire and yearning for knowl-
edge, the Syrians spent great efforts in translating Greek
works into Syriac. 1 In this they also demonstrated their
exceptional faculties and intelligence.

The translation movement began early in the Chris-
tian era. After the Holy Bible was translated from the
Hebrew and Greek, the epistles of this period as well as

the canons and ordinances based on the Bible were also
translated. This was followed by the activities of the
School of Edessa which began the translation of the
theological, historical and jurisprudence masterpieces
of religious leaders and speculative thinkers. By the
middle of the century they proceeded to translate the
books of philosophy as well as those of diverse sciences
and left no Greek science or art without having first
rendered it into their tongue. The School of Edessa did
not stand alone in this regard, but it is most likely that
a group of top scholars in the country of al-Sham and its
many convents participated in this great effort into
which only a few capable learned men and writers could
venture. 2 For the knowledge of Greek - then the lan-
guage of learning and politics - so spread among our
Western Syrian schools and institutions that there was
hardly a monastery and a big or moderate school whose
teachers did not learn it or teach it And when they
mastered both languages and excelled the Easterners
(Nestorians) in eloquent style, significant writings and
serious scientific subjects - despite what has been lost of
their legacy through time - out of their pens came
interesting writings and composition. The origins of
some of these writings were lost but they survived in the
Syriac translation.

Indeed, the Syrian scholars have contributed to sci-
ence as they did to those who seek for its treasures. They
also became the torches of their Syrian nation which
benefited from the knowledge of outstanding learned
Christians as well as ancient philosophers. The impact
of this knowledge on the Syrian nation was manifested
in the successful activities of Syrian scholars in the arena
of learning for a thousand years. This is what the
Christian Greek nation - who enjoyed the fruits of its
rich language and avoided learning the Aramaic tongue
or benefited from the product of our scholars and
historians - did not do. Thus, its libraries harbored no
(Syriac) writings except those of Bardaysan and few by
St. Ephraim. Its histories too were more or less void of
happenings in the Near and Middle East.

The impact of this deficiency remained conspicuous
in both profane and ecclesiastical history until the
beginning of the twentieth century when contemporary
western scholars and their predecessors began to fill the
gap through the study of our language and by publish-
ing the works of our scholars.

Had the Greeks done the same, the translations of
some of the books which were lost would have been
preserved as have been those Armenian translations. 3

The translation movement reached with us the high-
est peak as a result of the distinguished work of the
translators in the golden era, i.e., from the fourth to the
eighth centuries. They all shared the same faculty mak-
ing eloquent and lucid style combined with excellent
meaning. Though at the beginning they placed empha-
sis on literary translation, starting from the middle of
the seventh century they placed more emphasis on

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

meaning. They also learned scientific discipline, thanks
to the innovations of Athanasius II, of Balad and Jacob
of Edessa. However, what distresses us and the history of
literature is that history did not reward the competent
translators by perpetuating their memory. Perhaps out
of modesty these translators chose not to disclose their
names. No doubt, most of them were servants of reli-
gion as bishops, monks and priests who renounced the
pleasures of the world and denied themselves every-
thing except that which drew them nearer to God and
benefitted their neighbor. Translators are either known
or unknown.

Those who are unknown were:

1 . The translators of the Holy Bible.

2. The translators of the epistles of Clemis (Clem-
ent), Ignatius and the Didascalia and others in the
second and third centuries.

3. The translators of the minor ecumenical councils
and others in the fourth and fifth centuries.

4. The translators of the works of the Doctors of the
Church from the early period of the second century
until the first quarter of the fourth century.

5. The translators of the works ofEusebius ofCaesarea,
Athanasiun the Apostolic, Titus of Busra, at the end of
the fifth century; Gregory of Nyssa, the Cypriot, John
Chrysostom and others in the fifth and sixth centuries.
The works of Gregory Nazianzen were perhaps trans-
lated in this period too.

6. The translators of the canons of emperors in the
fifth century.

7. The translators of the epistles of the Fathers in the
sixth century.

8. The translators of ascetic books and the biogra-
phies of saints and their stories.

9. The translators of church hymns called the Can-
ons in the eighth century.

The known translators were:

1. Marutha, metropolitan of Miyafarqin (d. 421).

2. Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 435).

3. Archdeacon Probus of Antioch (end of the fifth
century) . 4

4. The Chorepiscopus Polycarp of Mabug (d. 508).

5. John the Blessed (beginning of the sixth century) .

6. Simon abbot of the Monastery of Liqin.

7. Paul, metropolitan ofal-Raqqa (Callinicus) (d. 528) .

8. The priest Sergius of Ras Ayn (d. 536).

9. Stephen, assistant to Sergius of Ras Ayn.

10. Rabban Moses of Agel (d. 550)

11. Sergius bar Qasir, bishop of Harran (d. 580)

12. Thomas of Amid (d. 598) .

13. Paul, metropolitan of Talla.

14. Thomas the deacon.

15. Paul, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 619)

16. Paul the abbot (d. 624).

17. Thomas of Harqal, metropolitan of Mabug (d.
627).

18. Janurin of Amid (d. 665).

19. Patriarch Athanasius II (d. 686).

20. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708).

21. Phocas bar Sergius.

22. Theodosius, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 830).

23. Arbi, metropolitan of Samosata (d. 850).

24. Ignatius III, metropolitan ofMelitene (d. 1094).

The translators from Persian to Syriac were:

1. Severus Sabukht, bishop of Qinnesrin (d. 665).

2. John of Tiflis who translated the Gospel from
Syriac into Persian. He has been mentioned formerly
among the translators of medical and philosophical
works from Syriac into Arabic.

3. Gregory bar Hebraeus, maphrian of the East
translated four philosophical and medical books from
Arabic into Syriac.

4. Yeshu the priest, translated the CArcmzcfeofMichael
the Great into Armenian.

SECTION ONE

The Translated Works Until 400A.D.

Following is a list of the works of church doctors
translated from Greek:

1. The two epistles of Clemis (Clement) of Rome to
the Corinthians, his other two pseudo-epistles on virgin-
ity and eight books comprising the Canons ascribed to
him. 1

2. The seven epistles of Ignatius the Illuminator said
to be an abridgement of the originals, three of which
addressed to Polycarp, Ephesus and Rome were pub-
lished by Cureton . 2 At Basibrina we found the epistles to
Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia and Asia (Izmir) with
the abridgement of Polycarp’s epistle to Philippi. The
Greek version of chapter twelve which is most impor-
tant, is lost

3. The apologies of Aristides the Athenian philoso-
pher and Ambrose the Greek convert to Christianity in
the second century. 5

4. Eleven explanatory extracts of the Holy Bible by
Hippolytus of Rome and his homily on the passover
(Easter) addressed to the Empress Mamaea and on
extract from his reply to Gaius the priest. 4

5. Several extracts, some of which are authentic and
some merely ascribed to Eustinus, Melito, bishop of
Sardis, Irenaeus, Clemis (Clement) of Alexandria and
Cyprian, 5 together with four homilies on Faith, the
Incarnation, the Annunciation of the Virgin and the
Epiphany by Gregory Thaumaturgus; 6 extracts from the
six letters of Dionysius of Alexandria to Nopatus,
Dionysius, Stephen, the two Popes Stephen I and Xystus
II, Paul of Samosata and a refutation of his heresy; 7
extracts from the treatise of Methodius, the martyr,
bishop of Lucia on the Resurrection in refutation of
Origen. The original Greek of this treatise except for a

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

small portion has been lost 8 Also, other extracts and a
treatise on the end of times in 25 pages, probably
spurious; 9 extracts from the homilies of Peter of Alexan-
dria on the Divinity, Resurrection and that souls did not
precede the bodies in existence; on the admonition of
those who renounce faith under persecution; 10 several
homilies by Alexander of Alexandria 11 and extracts by
Saraphion, bishop of Thumuis. 12

6. A book by Eustathius of Antioch comprising seven
treatises in refutation of Arianism mentioned by the
Catholicos Timothy I in his last letter to the priest
doctor Sergius. Perhaps Martin published extracts or
only portions of it 15 It also contains a homily on the
Annunciation (of the Virgin).

7. The Ecclesiastical History, the History of Martyrs in
Palestine and the Divine Manifestation of our Lord by
Eusebius of Caesarea, the Chronicle of Eusebius trans-
lated by Jacob of Edessa and the Defense of the Gospels,
parts of which were incorporated by Severus the monk
in his collection No. 853. 14

8. Four homilies on Lent, Stephen, Faith and the
New Forms and the treatise against the Jews by the
Syrian Eusebius of Edessa, bishop of Hims who died
shortly after the year 359. 15

9. A book on refutation of Arianism by Athanasius of
Alexandria ofwhich we have avaluable and unique copy
which is slightly imperfect and written in fine Estrangelo
script on vellum. It contains three treatises in 167 pages
most likely transcribed in the eighth century. 16 Also by
Athanasius are fifteen festal letters on Easter written
from 329 to 348 and slightly wanting. They are pre-
served in an old manuscript transcribed in the eighth
century; 17 a discourse on the incarnation of the word
transcribed in 564; 16 a treatise against Appolinarius; 19
discourses on the Trinity, Epiphany, Orthodox faith,
the Crucifixion and Good Friday; 20 two letters to Apyctius,
bishop of Corinth and another letter to Adelphius on
the Incarnation; 21 a treatise on the Virginity said to be
unauthentic and an apology for his escape. 25

10. The four discourses on Titus, bishop of Busra (d.
375) against the Manicheans of which the first, the
second and part of the third treatises 24 survive in Greek;
an explanatory discourse of some passage of the Gospel;
the fourteenth discourse of Christian teaching by Cyril,
bishop of Jerusalem (d. 386). 25

1 1. The works of Basilius of Caesarea which are: the
homilies of the Six Days of Creation, discourses on the
Week of Passion in 236 pages transcribed by Athanasius
the priest in 666, 26 a book of Ethics of 178 pages
containing spiritual and theological discourses in which
he discusses Baptism, the Eucharist and lives of some
martyrs; 27 three treatises against Eunomius, two ofwhich
are written on vellum in the Estrangelo script, the first
is imperfect; 28 two letters to his brother Gregory and the
people of Suzopolis with many counsels; 29 fourteen
discourses on the Nativity of our Lord, on Lent, on
learning by experience based on the saying of the right

man of the Bible “I shall pull down my barns,” on the
forty martyrs, on Faith, against the Drunkards; an ex-
planatory homily of a chapter from the Bible usually
recited in the eve of the first Friday of Lent; on the Six
Days of Passion, on the Resurrection; 50 on the Holy
Spirit; 51 letters of Basilius and on Monastical regula-
tions. 55

12. The homilies of Gregory the Theologian, his two-
syllabic poems and his letters 55 translated (into Syriac)
by the abbot Paul in 624 as well as Vinerius of Amid and
Athanasius II, the translation of the first one (abbot
Paul) was revised byjacob of Edessa or perhaps by Arbi,
metropolitan of Samosata, who evidently chose selec-
tions of these homilies for translation. Further, a copy of
his poems numbering 1 30 were translated in the fifth or
the sixth century. However, these poems which were
published in two volumes in Beirut in 1889 donotagree
with the original arrangement due to confusion and
abridgement. The homilies of Gregory which have
reached us are seven:

1) On the Nativity of our Lord,

2-3) On the Epiphany,

4) On the Passover Easter,

5) On Sunday and the Spring,

6) On Mamas the martyr youth,

7) On the Pentecost, 56 and an epistle to Cledonius. 57

13. The writings of Gregory of Nyssa: Comprising a
thirteen-chapter homily against Eunomius, 58 sixteen
discourses on the commentary on the Song of Songs, five
discourses on the Lord’s Prayer, eight discourses on the
Beatitudes, 59 two discourses on the Holy Trinity, 40 a
discourse on the Fortune of Man, 41 a discourse on the
Hexameron, 42 a thirty-six chapter discourse on the
perfection of the creation of man, in which he com-
pleted his brother’s treatise on the Six Days of Creation,
a large tract on the Oratio Catechetica Magna,* 3 a dialogue
with his sister Macrina on the Soul and Resurrection, 44
a letter to Theophilius of Alexandria against
Apollinarius; 45 a discourse on Virginity of which frag-
ments survive and six homilies containing:

1) a commentary on the Liturgy; 47

2) on the Incarnation of our Lord;

3) on Stephen;

4) on the Passion;

5) on the Resurrection (Easter),

6) on eulogizing Meletius, bishop of Antioch 48 and
other homilies with several counsels.

Also ascribed to him are the answers to the questions
of his brother Basil on the knowledge of the Tora
(Pentateuch) , doctrines, anecdotes, liturgies and eccle-
siastical ethics which according to Baumstark were
originally Syriac and written in the ninth century. 49

14. Chapters by Didymus of Alexandria (d. 398)
against Arianism, a treatise on preaching by Glasius,
metropolitan of Caesarea of Palestine (d. 398) and a
discourse on Faith by Ambrose (d. 397). 50

15. A short treatise on the weights and measures

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

mentioned in the Bible by Epiphanius of Cyprus 51 and
published in 1936. His treatise, The Container of Medicine,
against Heresies, contained in a wanting manuscript at
the end in the Library at Hims was transcribed around
1 200 A.D., and a homily on the Presen tation of our Lord
in the Temple, 52 a discourse on heretics and a commen-
tary on the Gospels by Amphilochus, bishop of Iconium
(d. 400). 55

16. A commentary on the book of Ecclesiastes by
John the solitary ascetic addressed to Theogenus the
ascetic of which a vellum copy written in the Estrangelo
script is preserved in the Mount Sinai, MS. 16.

SECTION TWO

The Translation Until The Year 451

1 7. The writings ofjohn Chrysostom are made up of
a discourse on the Priesthood, 1 two discourses on Re-
pentance and Counsel to Theodore, 2 twelve homilies
against the heretics, 5 eight discourses against the Jews, 4
a discourse on the Divinity of Christ against the Hea-
thens, 5 two discourses on Baptism and three homilies
“ad Stagirum a daemone Vexatum,” 8 a consolatory
epistle to those exiled from home, 7 several homilies
containing commentaries on the Gospels of St. Mat-
thew 8 and SL John 9 and the Pauline epistles; 10 of these
homilies as well as his festal homilies we know one
hundred, and one homily sixty-five of which are pre-
served at our library. One homily only was published by
Francois Nau, while thirty-five others were mentioned
by some old manuscripts in the series of homilies for the
whole year. These hundred homilies are as follows: 11

1) on the Consecration of the Church;

2) the Annunciation of Zachariah;

3) on the Nativity of our Lord;

4) on the Incarnation of Christ an d on the Mother of
God;

5) on the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary;

6) on the Manifestation of our Lord from the com-
mentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew;

7) on the Baptism of our Lord by John;

8) on the Beginning Lent;

9-10) on Lent;

11) on Fasting and Repentance;

12) on the Leper from the commentary on the
Gospel of St Matthew;

13) on the contest of our Lord with Satan;

14) on Fasting;

15) Extract from the twenty-fifth homily on the
Epistle to the Romans about the punishments which
took place throughout the ages and against those who
deny Hell;

16) Extractfrom the fifth homily on theEpisde to the
Romans concerning that we should fear Hell and on
our lack of Love;

17) Extracts from the second homily on the contest

of our Lord with Satan;

18) Extracts from the thirty-seventh homily on the
Gospel of St John;

19) on Zacchaeus the Publican;

20-22) on the Prodigal Son;

23) on the two Blind men from the commentary on
the Gospel of St. Matthew;

24) the third contest of Our Lord with Satan;

25) on Matthew the Publican;

26) Extracts from the third homily on Humility from
the commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew;

27) on Mid-Lent;

28) on the ten Virgins;

29) on the Rich man whose ground brought forth
plentifully;

30) on Lazarus and the Rich man;

31) Extract from the sixty-ninth homily from the
commentary on the parable “The Kingdom of God is
likened unto a King who made a feast for his Son” from
the Gospel of St. Matthew;

32) on the Mercy of God which our evils cannot
overcome;

33) on the verse from the Psalms “Surely men are
likened unto vapor,” according to the Syriac version
(Ps. 39:6) and “Surely they are disquieted in vain”
according to the Greek version;

34) on Mercy;

35) on Psalm 100;

36) on the words of David “who is the man who
seeketh life” and on those who blaspheme;

37) Extract from the tenth homily on the second
Epistle to the Corinthians on the Fearful (Second)
coming of Christ;

38) Extract from a homily showing that the obser-
vance of Lent is not sufficient to qualify us for partaking
of the Holy Eucharist on the great day of the Resurrec-
tion of our Lord separate from the virtue of the soul,
also on Malice and Faith;

39) Extracts from three homilies on Lazarus of
Bethany compiled from the commentary on the Gos-
pel;

40) on Palm Sunday;

41) on Palm Sunday Festival;

42) for Monday in Passion Week and on the Arrival
in the Harbor which he delivered at the church of Asia
while in exile;

43) the sixty-eighth homily on the verse from the
Gospel of St.John “the people answered him, we have
heard out of the law that Christ abideth forever: and
how sayest you, the Son of Man must be lifted up? Who
is this Son of Man” 12 and on our duty to take care of the
lives of our brethren;

44) the seventy-sixth homily on the Gospel of St.John
“rise, let us go hence” 15 and “I am the true vine and my
Father is the Husbandman,” 14 and on Iniquity;

45) on the saying of the Lord “If it is possible, let this

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

cup pass from me,” and on heretics;

46) same as the previous one;

47) on the Passion of Our Savior;

48) on the Treachery of Judas, on the Holy Sacra-
ments and on that we should not bear grudges;

49) extracts from the eighty-third homily on the
Gospel of St. Matthew “Then comethjesus with them to
a place called Gethsemane...;” 16

50) extracts from the homily eighty-four on the
Gospel of St. Matthew “And, behold, one of them which
were with Jesus stretched out his hand, and drew his
sword;” 17

51) the evening of the Friday of the Crucifixion;

52) extracts from the homily eighty-six on the Gospel
of St. Matthew “And Jesus stood before the Governor:
and the Governor asked him, saying: Art Thou the King
of the Jews?”; 18

53) extracts from the eighty-seventh homily on the
verse from the Gospels “Then the officers ledjesus unto
the hall of judgment;” 19

54) on the Salvation we are given by the Cross;

55) on the Passion of our Lord;

56) for the Saturday of Annunciation, on Baptism,
the Thief and on that we should neither be glutton nor
drunk;

57) on the Graveyard 20 and the Cross;

58) the eighty-fifth homily on the Gospel of St. John
concerning the Evening of the Passover and on the
verse “And after this Joseph of Aramathea;” 21

59) on the Resurrection and on Let us escape from
fornication and iniquity;

60) on the Resurrection of our Lord;

61) on His Ascension to Heaven;

62) on the Virgin;

63) a homily on the epilogue of the Epistle to the
Romans in praise of Sts. Peter and Paul;

64) on the commemoration of martyrs and confes-
sors;

65) on the dead;

66) on that we should not weep over the dead as
other people do;

67) on the Humanity of our Lord which begins thus:
Beloved, the souls which love God daily enjoy the
heavenly festivities;

68) a homily to be recited in the evening of the first
Wednesday of the Lent;

69) another one for the second Sunday of the Lent;

70) a homily for the fourth Sunday on the Canaanite
Woman;

71) for the evening of the fifth Sunday;

72) for the evening of the first Friday of the Lent;

73) for Good Friday;

74) on the Cross and the Thief;

75) on the end of the Lent and the Saturday of
Annunciation;

76) on the Nativity of our Lord;

77) on the Massacre of the Innocent;

78-79) on Baptism;

80-81) on the decollation of John the Baptist;

82) on the Lent;

83) for the second Saturday of the Lent;

84) for the third Sunday of the Lent;

85) for the sixth Sunday of the Lent;

86) on wealth and poverty;

87) Extract from the homily on the Epistle to the
Romans;

88-89) on the Canaanite Woman;

90) on the Sinner Woman;

91) on Friday of the Crucifixion;

92-93) on the Saturday of Annunciation;

94) for the evening of the Passover;

95) for the evening of the Monday after the Resurrec-
tion;

96) for Low Sunday;

97) on the Pentecost;

98) on the Apostles;

99) on Babula the patriarch;

100) on the Maccabees;

101) on Romanus the martyr.

18. The commentary on the Gospels by Theophilus
of Alexandria (d. 41 2) and his letter to the monks of St.
Bacchumius; the treatise ofjohn, metropolitan ofjerusa-
lem (d. 412) on Faith and the letter of Accacius, metro-
politan of Melitene (d. 431) refuting the allegations of
Andrew of Samosata. 22

19. The writings of Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) which
are: the Book on the worship in Spirit and in Truth compris-
ing seventeen treatises of commentaries on the Jewish
Laws - written in mystical method. Their form is that of
a dialogue between the author and Palladius, bishop of
Helenopolis who died around 425. A copy of this work
in the Armenian Monastery of St. Jacob in Jerusalem is
written in a fine elegant Estrangelo script in the eighth
or ninth century, imperfect at both the beginning and
the end with some six treatises missing at the middle.
Only 394 pages remained of this manuscript. 25 Of Cyril’s
writings are also the “de Recta Fide” which he wrote for
the Emperor Theodosius the Less, a copy of which he
delivered to Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa who trans-
lated it into Syriac; 24 a treatise on the Trinity copy of
which is at the British Museum; 25 the Book of Glaphyrra
(mysteries) consisting of thirteen commentary treatises
selected from the commentaries on the Pentateuch
translated by Moses of Agel into Syriac around the year
525; 26 two volumes containing a detailed commentary
on the Gospel of St. Luke and 156 homilies first pub-
lished by Payne Smith in 1858 after many manuscripts
in the British Museum, the oldest of which was tran-
scribed between the seventh and eighth century. The
firstvolume which contains eighty homilies of 330 pages
was published byJ.B. Chabot in 1912 who also relied in
its publication on two Berlin manuscripts commented
upon between the eighth and the ninth century. Of the
original Greek of this first volume, which is wanting at

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the beginning, nothing is left except a few portions.
However, we have in the two volumes of the homilies of
the Doctor Fathers for the whole year, three of which
were published, namely the record homily for the
Nativity (of our Lord), two homilies for the F-piphany
and a homily for the Nativity of John the Baptist. The
rest are still not published. These unpublished homilies
are:

1) The Nativity of our Lord;

2) the third homily, on the Presentation of Our Lord
in the Temple;

3) the eleventh homily, on the Presentation of our
Lord in the Temple and Simon the Aged;

4) the eighty-seventh homily, on the Festivals of
Martyrs;

5) on the Palsied man;

6) the one-hundred and thirtieth homily, on the
Palm Sunday Festival;

7) on the parable of the vine;

8) the homily one-hundred and forty;

9) the homily one hundred and forty-sixth;

10) the homily one hundred and forty-first on
Maunday Thursday;

11) the homily one hundred and forty-ninth;

12) the homily one hundred and fifty-first on “And
the whole multitude of them arose, and led him unto
Pilate;” 27

13) the homily one hundred and fifty-fourth on “And
it was about the sixth hour; ”**

14) the homily one hundred and fifty-fifth on the
Resurrection of our Lord;

15) on the Holy Mother of God against Nestorius; 29
and twelve letters one of which is addressed to Acacius,
bishop of Seythopolis, on the theory of Azazil. 30

20. Canons of the principal as well as the minor
councils to the middle of the fifth century. Among these
are the canons of the Council of Carthage in the year
251 and twenty-five canons sent by the Italian bishops to
the Eastern bishops who assembled in Antioch and
other laws enacted by Christian kings for the purchase
of lands, slaves, and also for dowries, the division of
inheritance among brothers, wills, and other laws en-
acted in the fifth century. Appended to these laws is the
letter of Constantine the Great to the Council of Tyre
which acted meanly by dismissing Athanasius of Alexan-
dria, the letter of the two emperors Theodosius the Less
and Valantinius to Stephen, metropolitan of Ephesus
on the dispensation of church affairs, the letter of Leo,
archbishop of Rome to the Emperor Marcian in reply to
the latter’s letter delivered by the bishop Lucian and the
deacon Basil and the letter of John of Rome to
Prosdocius. 31

2 1 . Thirty-seven chapters of the Ecclesiastical History of
Socrates, fifteen chapters of the history of Theodoret of
Cyrus 32 with a few chapters of his book The History of
Monk s 33 and his epistle to the people of Constan tinople 34
and the History of Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene.

A homily by Antiochus, bishop of Akka (Ptolemais)
(d. 408) beginning with: I praise thee a new praise; 35 a
homily against the heretics on the Substance and Na-
ture; 36 a discourse on the prayer of Habakkuk 37 by the
Syriac speaking Severianus, bishop of Gabala, who died
around the second decade of the fifth century; a dis-
course by Atticus, archbishop of Constantinople (406-
426) 38 on the Always Virgin Mother of God 39 which is not
found in Greek; two discourses by Theodotus, metro-
politan ofAncyra (d. 440), on the Nativity of our Lord; 40
Seven discourses by Proclus of Constantinople (d. 446) ,
three of which are on the Incarnation, the Nativity of
our Lord and on Clemis the martyr, bishop of Ancyra,
which is not found in Greek; 41 a homily for Low Sunday
beginning with “For Sinai is our festival of Salvation”
and another homily on the Ascension beginning with
“when I was counting in my mind the advantages which
our human race has gained from the Cross;” two dis-
courses on the Mother of God; on the evening of Good
Friday; on Judas the Treacherous; 42 two letters to the
Armenians and another one tojohn of Antioch; 43 three
discourses by Arichtaus, bishop of Antioch, Pysidia
contemporary of Proclus on the Mother of God, 44 the
Nativity of our Lord 45 and on Epiphany. 46

23. A commentary on the Psalms by the priest-monk
Eusechius of Jerusalem (d. 451). 47

SECTION THREE

The Rest of The Translated Writings From The
Year 451 and After

24. The treatise of Timothy II of Alexandria (d. 477)
against the Council of Chalcedon of which only one
hundred and twenty-six pages remain 1 partly published
by Nau. 2 It also has a complete Armenian translation.

25. The book ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite
translated by Sergius of Ras Ayn 3 and the book ascribed
to Hireotheus, 4 the teacher of Dionysius, translated by
someone in answer to the request of a pupil named
Philias. 5

26. Two homilies on the Annunciation of Zachariah
and the Nativity of our Lord by Antipater, metropolitan
of Busra (around 460), 6 a homily on Simon the Aged
and the presentation of our Lord in the Temple by the
priest Timothy 7 of Antioch (or Jerusalem), both trans-
lators were orators living around the year 535, 8 a homily
on St. George the martyr by the priest Theodolus (Abd
Allah) of whom we know nothing; 9 a homily on the
decease of the Virgin by the priest Andrew of Jerusa-
lem; 10 a homily by Pantaleon, priest of the Monastery of
Byzantium, on the Elevation of the Cross 11 (Pantaleon
was an orator who lived in the first half of the seventh
century), 12 and a homily on the consecration of the
Chrism byjohn Phasaj 13 of whom we know nothing.

27. The writings of Severus of Antioch translated by

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Paul of Callinicus (al-Raqqa) , Paul of Edessa, Athanasius
II and Jacob of Edessa. These writings are: Philalethes,
treatisesagainstNephalius, Phelisismus, Alexander and
John of Caesarea and againstjulian the phantasiast, the
homilies for the whole year, the hymns of Severus, a
selection from his letters, a commentary on the Gospel
of St. Luke and others which shall be mentioned later.

28. An apology against the priest John Aegeates by
Theodoretof Cyrus, 14 the treatises ofjohn Rufus in the
refutation of the Council of Chalcedon, a commentary
on the Revelation by Oecumenius, 15 a refutation of the
treatise entitled The Spider’s Web by Rufina the Silver
Merchant. 16

29. The book of Theodosius of Alexandria 17 (d. 366)
as well as his twenty-five questions, five canons 18 and a
letter to the Armenians. 19

30. The Diaetetef 0 or “Arbiter” against the Council of
Chalcedon and two theological treatises by John
Philoponus 21 published by Sanda in Beirut in 1930.

31. Synodical letter exchanged between the two
Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria after the MS. of
Basibrina. These are:

1) the letter ofjohn II, archbishop of Alexandria
(505-516) to Severus, patriarch of Antioch, carried by
the bishop of Elarianus, the priest Valise and the dea-
con Chartarius on the 8 th of April which is the Monday
of the Week of the White [the week after Easter], the
year 561 of Antioch (512 A.D.) . This letter is composed
of six pages and begins with “Let the significance of
committing miracles arise now;”

2) the letter of Severus to John comprising six pages
and beginning with “As the equality of the human race,
etc.; ” a twelve-page letter of the Council of Antioch held
by Dionysius, metropolitan of Tarsus and his brethren
the bishops to John II, patriarch of Alexandria begin-
ning with “To his Beatitude our Holy Father,” etc.;

3) a three-page reply ofjohn to the Council in 51 1
A.D., beginning with “T o my Lords, the Wise Brethren ; ”

4) A nine-page synodical letter from John III of
Alexandria to Athanasius II, patriarch of Antioch on
June 4, 686 beginning with “To my Holy and Blessed
Father in all his affairs;”

5) a three-page letter ofjoseph of Alexandria tojohn
IV, patriarch of Antioch, his priests, deacons and con-
gregation entided “To the righteous in all his deeds”
and beginning with “John, the Divine Apostle;”

6) a two-page reply ofjohn IV of Antioch tojoseph
of Alexandria in the year 846 22 and beginning with
“When I hear the Holy Bible commands by saying;”

7) a letter ofjohn bishop of Hepaestus the Copt sent
from the island of Cyprus about 540 to the abbots of the
Eastern monasteries concerning those who return to
the Orthodox Faith. 25

32. Twenty-two letters and one discourse contained
in an old and unique vellum manuscript transcribed in
the seventh century. 24 They are:

1) a seven-page synodical letter of Theodosius of

Alexandria to Severus of Antioch;

2) twenty-four page reply of Severus to Theodosius;

3) the letter of Theodosius to the clergy concerning
a certain false belief that had sprung in his days among
those of his communion about the oneness of God;

4) a thirty-nine page homily which was delivered at
Constantinople;

5) a six-page letter by him on canons;

6) formula of the signatures of the priests of
Constantinople to Theodosius;

7) his letter to the Eastern bishops;

8) another similar letter;

9) a letter of the Bishops Jacob, Eugenus and
Eunomius to Theodosius;

10) a letter from the Metropolitan Theodorus to
Paul II of Antioch;

1 1) a letter from Theodosius to the Eastern bishops;

12) a synodical letter from Paul of Antioch to
Theodosius of Alexandria;

13) the reply of Theodosius to Paul;

1 4) a letter from the abbots to Theodosius carried by
the Bishops, Jacob, Conon and Eunomius;

1 6-1 7) two letters of authorization from Theodosius
to Paul of Antioch;

18) the letter ofTheodosius to die (Coptic) Bishops,
John, Leonidas and Joseph;

19) his letter to the Bishop Theodore, the abbots,
monks and the faithful in Thebes and Arcadia;

20) his letter to priests, deacons, abbots, monks and
the faithful of Alexandria;

21) copy of the Synodikon (Pact or Agreement)
made at Alexandria and at Constantinople;

22) a ten-page synodical letter from Theodore, patri-
arch of Alexandria to Paul II of Antioch;

23) twenty-six pages reply of Paul to Theodore.

33. A table of the 153 episcopal sees of Antioch made
in the middle of the sixth century with some revisions.
We found an old copy of this table in Basibrina com-
mented upon in the second half of the ninth century
which we quoted. 25 A second copy of the same, in the
Library at Hims, was completed in 1 602 and is not free
from distortion. There are also some differences be-
tween the two copies. 26

SECTION FOUR

Translations of Greek Writings of Orthodox
Origin Not Known to Us

We found three Greek Orthodox scholars who wrote
in Greek, but we do not know whether their writings
were translated into Syriac. These authors were:

1. The priest Timocles of Constantinople who was
still living between 450 and 471 . He and Acacius the
priest (the Educator of Orphans) composed Octoechus
(Hymns) through the chanting of which the Orthodox

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

congregation was exhilarated and increased in number
(Zachariah the Historian Vol. I, p. 185). Bardy in his
Greek Literature, (p. 163) and Batiffol, quoting Theodore
the Anagnostes, stated that “Timocles composed
Troparias, 1 but his rhymed poems are lost to us.”

2. The priest John Aegeateswho lived in the middle
of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. He
wrote an ecclesiastical history divided into ten books.
Photius of Constantinople, who praised his adorned
style, stated in extract 41 of his Bibliotheca that he has
read the first five parts of his work beginning with the
history of the Council of Ephesus and ending with the
life of Peter the Fuller in 488. The year in which he
ended his history is not known. 2 However, Pargoire 5
mentioned that he was contemporary of Severus I.

3. The priest Basil of Cilicia about whom Photius
stated in extract 42 of his Bibliotica the following: “He
[Basil] wrote an ecclesiastical history in three volumes,
the first covering the history of Marcian, Leo I and part
of the reign of Zeno from 450 to 483. The second
volume covers the period from the death of the Pope
Simplice until the end of the reign of Anstasius in 518.
The third discusses the time of Justin I (518-527).
Photius, however, was only able to obtain the second
volume which was large because it contains many letters
of the bishops. Basil also wrote a defense in sixteen parts
against John of Baysan. He was, no doubt, contempo-
rary to Theodore the Anagnostes, i.e., he was still alive
in the first half of the sixth century.” 4

PART TWO

Biographies of Syrian Scholars
and Writers

FOREWORD

Table of Concise Biographies of Scholars
Divided Into Three Periods

The First Period: B. C. to 758 AD.

This period begins with the two philosophers, Wafa
the Aramaean, in the pre-Christian era and then Bar
Daysan, who lived at the end of the second and the
beginnirlg of the third centuries A.D. I tends with Iliyya,
bishop ofSinjar (d. 758) . The writers of this period were
distinguished for their originality, lucidity, and style.
They were also famous for the number and value of
their work. Indeed, this period is considered the golden
era of the Syriac language. These masterful writers
crowned the Syriac language with literary gems, attain-
ing the acme of philosophy, theology, Biblical commen-
taries, polemics and devotional duties, their unsur-
passed excellence in jurisprudence, history, poetry,
sermons, prose, biographies as well as story writing,
reveals their ability and excellent taste.

In this period flourished Ephraim the Great, Asuna,
Cyrillona, Isaac of Amid, Marutha, Rabula, Balai the
bishop, Isaac of Edessa, Simon the potter and Jacob of
Saruj. Philoxenus of Mabug astonished his con tempo-
raries with his eloquence andPaul ofCallinicus was well-
known for his precise translation of religious writings.
Other famous writers of their time were Sergius of Ras
Ayn, Severus of Antioch, the illustrious theologian,
John bar Talla, John bar Aphtonya, Daniel of Salh, the
commentator on the Scriptures, and the two historians:
Zachariah of Mitylene and John of Ephesus. Peter of
Callinicus the theologian. Patriarch Paul ofTalla, Paul
of Edessa and Thomas of Herclea, the translator of the
Scriptures, and other books were all written during this
period. John III of the Sedras, John of Busra and the
philosophers Severus Sabukht, Athanasius II, Jacob of
Edessa, George bishop of the Arabs, John of Atharb,
Phocas bar Sergius and Iliyya bishop of Sinjar and many
others such as the monks of the Qarqafta (the Skull)

monastery who translated Greek writings, composed
religious rituals and vocalized the Holy Scriptures.

The Second Period: 773 - 1286

This period opens with Master Lazarus bar Qandasa
in the year 773 and ends in the year 1286. It is a period
rich in theological writings, particularly commentaries
on the Holy Bible, polemics, jurisprudence, canonical
laws and historical chronicles. Some of the learned men
of this period were concerned with philosophy as well as
morphology, grammar and vowelization of the Syriac
language. Also, they enriched the church services with
the composition of many hymns and supplicatory
prayers. In addition, many of the authorities of this
language in this period were distinguished for their
mastery of the different types of poetry, in which they
were thoroughly proficient. Because of their eloquence
and rhetoric, the prose of the greatest of these writers
was solid, well-formulated, elegant and smooth. How-
ever, among the writers of this timewere some who were
only mediocre.

Of the writers of this period we mention in particular
the Abbot David bar Paul for his prose, the Patriarch
George I for his commentaries on the Gospels; the
Patriarch Cyriacus for his theological writings, homilies
and church canons; and Lazarus bar Sob to for his
magnificen t poetry. Also worthy of men tion are Nonnus
of Nisibin for his polemics, Dionysius of Tall Mahre for
his famous history; Theodosius and Benjamin, bishops
of Edessa, John of Dara and Moses bar Kifa for their
theological and philosophical writings, and Theodosius
the Patriarch for his syntagma and his commentaries.
We also remember ninth-century patriarchs for their
laws and canons, Ezekiel of Melitene for his poetry,
Athanasius of Qallisura for his prose, and the anony-
mous writer of the book The Cause of all Causes. Yahya ibn
Adi, Ali ibn Zura and Abu al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar
translated medical and philosophical books into Ara-
bic. In addition we find John the disciple of Marun,
John bar Shushan the writer and poet, Ignatius III of
Melitene, a philosopher historian, and the masters of
poetry, such as Bar Qiqi, Bar Sabuni, Timothy of Karkar
and Bar Andrew. Jacob bar Salibi, was famous for his
theological and polemical writings as well as his exten-
sive commentaries on the Holy Bible. Also well known
was Bar Wahbun. Michael the Great was famous for his
detailed chronicle which has never been successfully
imitated; the Edessene historian was known for his
precision ; Jacob of Bartulli was a philologist and theolo-
gian and Bar Madani was an orator and poet.

As to Anton of Takrit, the theologian, poet and
master of rhetoric, his eloquence has never been
equalled. As to Bar Hebraeus, the Syrian learned man
par excellence, he is the master of both periods however
one looks at him.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

THE THIRD PERIOD: 1290 - 1931

This period begins with Abu Nasr of Bartulli and
ends with the present There was little literary output
and this was restricted to a few subjects. The writers of
this period, whose writings vary considerably in quality,
fall into two categories:

The first category consists of writers who approxi-
mated the level of the writers of the second period, as far
as prose and poetry are concerned. Examples are Abu
Nasr of Bartulli, Gabriel of Bartulli (for his prose only) ,
Barsoum al-Safi, Yeshu bar Kilo, Cyril of Hah, Abu al-
Wafa, Joseph bar Gharib, Daniel of Mardin, Isaiah of
Basibrina, and Barsoum al-Madani, Bahnam of HidI
(for the quality of his prose and poetry) , David of Hims
(for his prose and some of his poetry) and Nuh the
Lebanese (for the greater part of his poetry also may be
placed among the writers of the second period) , Abd al-
Ghani al-Mansuri and the Maphrian Simon of Manimim
(who was reputed for his prose and poetry) , and Jacob
Saka (for his powerful poetry).

The writers of the second category are inferior to the
first group in literary quality. In this category are Ibn
Wuhayb, the monk Yeshu bar Khayrun, his brother
Saliba bar Khayrun, the Patriarch Aziz bar Sobto, Malke
Saqo, Yeshu of Basibrina and Addai of Basibrina, Masud
of Zaz, Nimat Allah Nur al-Din, Jacob of Qutrubul and
John al-Bustani.

The majority of the writers of this group were over-
whelmed by their fondness of using foreign terminol-
ogy. They turned away from the beautiful usage of the
language to an ugly type preferring a hybrid style to the
traditional noble one. However, they preserved the
heritage of the Syriac language in a time which treated
its people treacherously with arms and men.

CHAPTER ONE
Biographies of Scholars and
Writers of the First Period

1. Wafa the Aramaean

Wafa (or Waafa) the Aramaean was an ancient phi-
losopher and poet who lived well before the Christian
era. 1 He was mentioned only by Anton of Takrit who
wrote “The fifth meter of poetry is usually composed of

six or seven strophics whose number sometimes in-
creases or decreases. This meter belongs to a man
named Wafa, an Aramaean philosopher. The composi-

tion of poetry by this man, whose name has been
unknown for generations, is evidence that this art (po-

etry) is old with us.” Anton also cites a line of poetry by
Wafa whose meter he allowed himself to change in
order to comply with the melody:

“I Wafa, of noble origin who dispelled hisworriesand
drove away his sorrows;

I who rest his heart by driving away grief and distress
as well as the outbursts of anger and anxiety;

for the men whose anxieties increase, misfortunes
become their guests forever.”

Anton also says that “this type of poetry is composed
in the manner of the amorous songs in which the
composers of war lyrics and wedding love songs were
accustomed to compose.” 2 This is all that is known
about Wafa.

2. Paul bar Arqa of Edessa

Paul bar Arqa or Anqa of Edessa was a master of the
art of calligraphy. He invented the Syriac script known
today as the Estrangelo script as mentioned earlier. 3 He
probably lived around the year 200 A.D. In his Lexicon
on the term Estrangelo, Bar Bahlul quotes Hannan
Yeshu bar Sarushawayh (bishop of al-Hira in the ninth
century) who states that “God has given the talent to
Paul to perfect this script for the glorification of the
Gospel, in order that one’s intellect be delighted and all
may endeavor to read the Gospel in this wide legible and
beautiful script.” 4

3. Bar Daysan (d. 222)

Bar Daysan was born a heathen at Edessa on July 1,
154 A.D. and grew up in the palace of its king, Manu
VIII. Together with Manu’s son Abgar he received the
highest level share of learning and education. He em-
braced Christianity and was ordained a deacon and
perhaps also a priest. But, because he was becoming
involved in false heathen doctrines from which he had
notyetbeen freed, hewas renounced by the Church.He
died in 222 A.D.

Bar Daysan was an eminent and eloquent writer and
philosopher. He wrote many books in Syriac of which
nothing has survived except a small treatise entitled The
Laws of the Countries, which he dictated to his disciple
Philip and in which he discussed fate and predestina-
tion. Among his lostwri tings are his treatise on astrology
mentioned by George, bishop of the Arabs, and also a
hundred and fifty songs written after the manner of the
Psalms of David. St. Ephraim, who mentioned these
songs, states that Bar Daysan incorporated in them his
unorthodox doctrine and teaching and taught them to
the youths of Edessa in charming tunes of his own
composition. He also established a sect known as the
Daysaniyya which included many educated and wealthy
people. When St. Ephraim came to live in Edessa in 363
A.D., he endeavored to suppress the songs by compos-
ing songs of similar meters and melodies. Furthermore,

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Rabula, bishop of Edessa, (d. 435) was able to convert
most of his (Bar Daysan’s) followers to orthodoxy. Only
a few of them remained and were scattered in many
countries particularly in Persia. A remnant of this sect
survived until the tenth century.

Bar Daysan was not the father of Syriac poetry and the
creator of its meters as some contemporary writers
maintain. Syriac poetry existed well before the time of
Bar Daysan. Bar Daysan, however, expanded and diver-
sified its meters. It is said that he had a son named
Harmonius, who surpassed his father in the art of
poetry. This theory seems to have been unanimously
accepted by the historians of the Middle Ages. In fact,
Sozomin and Theodoret went a step further by main-
taining that Harmonius was the one who composed the
songs for the youths of Edessa, and that he was the one
who was opposed by St. Ephraim. However, the surviv-
ing poetry of St Ephraim mentions Bar Daysan and not
his son. Of these songs of Bar Daysan, only five lines
survive in a book written by Theodore bar Kuni, a
seventh-century writer. 3 * 5

Bar Daysan had several companions and disciples
who translated his writings into Greek. All or some of
these writings reached Eusebius of Caesaria, who praised
Bar Daysan in his Ecclesiastical History, because of his
preoccupation with preaching the Gospels at the begin-
ning. Eusebius also ascribed to him a dialogu e opposing
Marcoan the heretic, and a treatise on Fortune which
was also mentioned by Epiphanius and Jerome. How-
ever, this latter treatise may be the treatise entitled The
Laws of the Countries, as many con temporary historians of
literature maintain. 6

3. The Psalms and Praises of Solomon

The sixty-one Psalms ascribed to Solomon and com-
posed after the Psalms of David are attractive in their
poetic style and beauty of meanings. Most of these
psalms are a passionate spiritual communion with God.
They praise God, and deeply adhere to Him, placing
ultimate confidence in Him and exclaiming His irrefut-
able might and will which administer all of His creation.
They also profess the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation of
Christ the Word of God, His birth from the Virgin Mary,
and His power and dominion.

These psalms were discovered a short time ago in

1909 by the English Orientalist Rendel Harris near the
Tigris. Harris found a small Syriac book slightly imper-
fect at the beginning and at the end, written in the
beginning of the fifteenth century in a good and clear
hand. This book contains forty-two short hymns or
psalms and comprises one hundred and twelve pages.
Upon comparing this manuscriptwith an ancien t manu-
script in the British Museum (MS. 14538) which origi-
nally belonged to the Monastery of the Syrians in Egypt
and was written in the Estrangelo script combined with
the Western script around the tenth or the eleventh

century, Harris found out that approximately nineteen

of these psalms were attributed to Solomon. They were
lengthy, one of them comprising fifty-two verses. Harris
also used a peculiar collection called Pistis Sophia
which contains some of the psalms of Solomon in the
Coptic (Thebean) language, also translated into Latin.
He copied from it the parts lacking in the Syriac copy
and together with Alphonse Mingana published the
entire collection with an English translation in 1916,
relying on the mentioned copy. Both Harris and Mingana
think that this copy needs only six pages at the begin-
ning and at the end in order to be complete.

The majority of scholars who studied these psalms
think that they were either written by Bar Daysan or by
one of his disciples. They also fixed their date at the
close of the second or the beginning of the third
century. Others thought they were written by an agnos-
tic prior to the era of Bar Daysan, who, it seems, has read
them. Chabot thinks that (the psalms) were written at
the end of the first or the beginning of the second
century.

4. Theophilus of Edessa (309)

Theophilus of Edessa is a man of letters who wrote
the account of the martyrdom of Guriyya, Shamuna,
and the deacon Habib in the year 307-309.

5. Isaiah bar Hadbo ( 327 )

Isaiah bar Habdo of Arzun, one of the cavalrymen of
the Persian King, Shapur II, composed a splendid
account of the struggle of the ten martyrs, Zebina and
Lazarus and their companions in Arzun in the year 327.
He was an eye witness of their deaths and his account of
the martyrdom of these ten men has been published.

6. Miles, bishop of Sus (d. 341)

Miles, bishop of Sus (the city of Shushan) in the year
317 A.D., was one of the great propagators of Christian-
ity in Sus and Elam, and was also of the best bishops of
the East. He was martyred for his faith in 341 A.D.
According to Yeshu the Subawi, Miles wrote many
letters and various other compositions, none of which is
extant.

7. Simon bar Sabbai (d. 343)

Mar Simon bar Sabbai or Sabbaghin (son of the
dyers) belonged to a wealthy family from Ctesiphon or
Sus. In 328 he was ordained an archdeacon and then
Catholicos of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and adminis-
tered his congregation in an apostolic manner. The
ardent zeal he displayed for Christianity led to his
martyrdom by order of the tyrant Shapur II in 343. He
composed charming spiritual songs only four of which
survive. They were published by Kmosko. 7 Yeshu the
Subawi has attributed to him the writing of some letters.

8. Aphrahat the Persian (364)

Aphrahat, nicknamed the Persian Sage, was born a

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

heathen in some part of Persia, was converted to Chris-
tianity and became a monk. Some writers gave him the
name ofjacob and ascribed to him the office of bishop.
Other writers thought that he became a bishop of the
monastery of Mar Matta. However, there is no definite
proof that he was a bishop. Furthermore, relating him
to a monastery of Mar Matta is no doubt erroneous,
because the said monastery was not yet founded in his
time. Aphrahat was distinguished for his piety. He
studied the Holy Bible thoroughly, and between 337
and 340 wrote a large book which he called The Homilies.
This book contains twenty-three treatises on faith, love
of neighbor, fasting, prayier, wars, monks, eulogies and
the resurrection of the dead. Also among subjects dis-
cussed are humility, spiritual shepherds, circumcision,
the Passover, the Sabbath, and a universal epistle to
bishops, priests, and deacons, on righteous conduct
and peaceful living. These homilies also contained
treatises on distinguishing foods, call of the heathen
nations to Christianity, Christ being the Son of God,
virginity, the dispersion of the Jews, charity toward the
poor, persecution, the last days, and the Cluster of
Grapes.

Aphrahat’s style is lucid, smooth, and unpretentious;
yet it becomes boring. His teaching is orthodox. How-
ever, he fixed the span of the world at six thousand years
and was refuted by George, bishop of the Arabs. Of
Aphrahat’s Homilies there survives three copies written
in the fifth and sixth centuries, one of which was
commented on in the year 512. His work was translated
into Latin and published in an elegant edition by
Parisot in 1907. 8 It was also translated into German.

9. St Ephraim the Syrian (d. 373)

St Ephraim is unquestionably the master of the
Syriac language and the poet par excellence of the
Syrians. He possessed the innate properties of creative-
ness, poetic versatility, and the ability to present many
meanings in few words. His style is solid, powerful,
fluent and eloquent. In poetry he practiced an entirely
new doctrine in which he was seldom rivaled. He distin-
guished himself by his abundant subject matter, fertile
imagination and naturalness. In all these he takes palm.
Into these poems he incorporated lofty ideas and noble
meanings which would inspire his readers to the highest
spheres of piety and submissiveness, and worship. St.
Ephraim was an example of conscientiousness and
religious zeal. His heart was completely dominated by
the love of God. And so this is why he was described as

“The Prophet of the Syrians,” “The Sun of the Syrians,”
“The Harp of the Holy Spirit,” and the “Possessor of
Wisdom.” Moreover, Christendom professed his
leadership while he was still alive and chanted his songs,
praising God through them.

St. Ephraim was born in the early part of the fourth
century into a Christian family, (contrary to some ac-
counts which maintain that he was born a heathen and

was converted to Christianity in the prime of his life) .
His upbringing ennobled his character. In the prime of
youth he deserted the world and accompanied St.
Jacob, bishop of Nisibin, who was renowned for his
purity and holiness. Besides righteousness Ephraim
learned much of what was unique in Syriac literature.
He entered a monastic order, was ordained a deacon
and taught for thirty-eightyearsatthe school of Nisibin,
which has been founded by his master. He also worked
under his successors, the Bishops Baboy, Walgash and
Ibrahim, and composed part of his songs known as the
Songs of Nisibin. By the year 359 he had achieved wide
fame. In the year 363 he left his country as a result of the
Persian invasion and moved to Edessa, settling in its
Holy Mountain where he was highly welcomed by its
ascetics. He expanded the school of Edessa, which, as a
result of his contributions and knowledge, became
widely famous. It was at this school that he opened the
treasures of his knowledge and commented on the Old
and the New Testaments. Furthermore, he wrote many
excellent poems and masterpieces of canticles. His
poetry had become the model of eloquence. Many
studied under him.

He was an abstinent and ascetical person, sober,
understanding, serene and original. He was a flaming
fire which burned the tare of the misguided heretics, a
brilliant master and a faithful soldier, keeping watch on
the strongholds of Orthodoxy. He died on the 9th of
June, 373, nearing seventy years of age. Over his re-
mains a monastery, known as the Lower Monastery, was
built in the neighborhood of Edessa. The Church com-
memorates him on the first Sabbath of the Lent.

Of the prose writing of St. Ephraim have come down
to us the comentary on the Book of Genesis, part of the
Book of Exodus 9 and fragments of the rest of the Books
of the scriptures, interspersed in the collection of the
monk Severus (d. 861). In these commentaries he
relied on the Pshitto version. Of his writings also surive
an Armenian translation of his commentary on the
Diatessaron version of the Gospel, a commen tary on the
Pauline Epistles (except for a few verses which may be
found in the commentary on the Gospel by Yeshu Dad
al-Mrarwazi) and some discourses containing commen-
taries on chapters of the Holy Bible. We have red
selected chapters from a book of his called The Book of
Opinions, 10 two discourses against the heretics Hypatius
and Domnus, two treatises on the love of the Most High,
and supplications, a letter to the monks who dwelt in the
mountains. 1 ' He also wrote stories of the Apostles. Of
these, the story of St. Peter the Apostle has survived and
has been published. 12

However, the most outstanding of St. Ephraim’s
writings are his maymars (metrical homilies composed
in the seven-syllabic meter which isattributed to him) as
well as his madrashes (metrical songs). All of these
maymars and madrashes deal with religious subjects such
as the divinity of the Lord Christ, His humanity, teach-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

ings, His church, Apostles, martyrs, commentaries on
the Holy Bible, prayer, fasting, charity and worship.
Some of these madrashes pertain to monks, the Resur-
rection, prayers for the dead, on the scarcity of rain and
other subjects. He also composed songs describing
virginity, the Sacraments of the church, and the Nativity
of the Lord. The most beautiful of these is an alphabeti-
cal song which impresses its charm on hearts and its
lofty theological truths on minds. 13 He also composed
songs on Epiphany, Easter, the Resurrection, the call of
the Apostles, the attributes of the catholic (universal)
church, the Virgin and other saints. He also eulogized
some of his contemporary bishops and ascetics such as
Ibrahim al-Qayduni, andjulian the Aged. He wrote on
repentance, a refutation of Bar Daysan, the heretics and
Julian the Apostate. The number of his poems (some of
which have been lost) is unknown. Howevever, Bar
Hebraeus in his Hudoye (Nomocanon) mentions two
hundred and fourteen poemsby St. Ephraim combined
with those of Mar Isaac, but his number includes only a
selection of his maymars whose reading by the clergy was
made obligatory. What is known of these maymars are
fifteen maymars on the Epiphany, one on the Palm
festival, fifteen on the Passover, five on the Passion of
Our Lord, two on the Resurrection, and the reception
of Holy Communion on Easter Sunday, and one on Low
Sunday. He also wrote two on the birth of the Blessed
Virgin, St. Andrew the Apostle, the evangelization of the
country of Kalkh or the Killitites, three on Job, two on
Sts. Sergius and Bacchus and Demete, twenty on the
martyrs, five on the death of bishops, priests, deacons,
perfect monks, children and everybody else and seven
on the composition of man. Other subjects are: solitude
for worship, sojournment, the next world, the end of
time, humility and love of mammon. He wrote eleven
on condolences and the next world, seven on supplica-
tions, wisdom, counsel, faith, knowledge and repen-
tance, one on the saying of Isaiah: “The sinner shall be
taken away, that he shall not see the glory of the Lord,”
ten on the blessings of meals, four on Julian the Apos-
tate, and twenty on diverse subjects. Mgr. Rahamani
published two volumes of these maymars. The first of
these contains thirty-one may mars as well as fragments of
other maymars, such as those on the blessings of meals,
the fall of the city of Nicomedia, purity of heart, peni-
tence, and God’s care for us. Other topics include
vigilence, repentance, injustice, ascetics, Job the Righ-
teous, the refutation of Bar Daysan, the seige of Nisibin,
and Satan enticing people to sin. The second volume
contained several maymars which he composed on the
scarcity of rain. He has also a magnificent five-syllabic
maymar in which he addresses himself; it begins thus:
“How often I hungered.” He also composed a famous
metrical testament to which have been added many
interpolations which have nothing to do with the origi-
nal. 14 He also composed a metrical supplication.

Following are his known maymars:

87 maymars on faith and against those who doubt
faith, 85 on funerals, 76 on enjoinment for repentance,
15 on the earthly paradise, 51 on virginity and the
mysteries of our Lord, which are most illuminating, 77
known as the maymars of Nisibin which he composed
between 350 and 363, of which 60 survived (published
by Bicke). Twenty of these maymars were composed in
Nisibin and contained an account of the calamities
which this city suffered in the siege of the year 350 and
during the Persian War (359-363) . They also contain
some eulogies on the bishops of Nisibin mentioned
earlier. The rest of the maymars were composed in
Edessa, five containing the record of events of the
church of Edessa, four on the worship of idols in the city
of Harran and on its bishop Petes and some on the city
of Anazete. The restare on the Passion of our Lord, His
Resurrection and resurrection of the dead. Of these
maymars composed in Edessa, 15 are on the Nativity of
our Lord, 15 on Divine Manifestation, 15 on unleav-
ened bread, 52 on the church, 56 on refutation of
heresies, 17 on Ibrahim al-Qayduni, 24 on Julian Sobo
(the Aged), 20 on martyrs, 15 on preaching and 18 on
diverse subjects. 15

The most ancient choral books mention that the
scales of the madrashes (metrical songs) 16 which he
composed are five hundred. However, the largest of
these choral books contained only one hundred fifty-six
scales, while the majority of them contained no more
than forty-five scales (which have been mixed up with
other scales composed in imitation of the form and
content of St. Ephraim’s scales).

This doctor also composed part of the songs known
as the Shohre and the Inyans, also, some takkhsheftos
(supplicatory hymns) and cathismata were attributed to
him, as was formerly mentioned. 17 Philoxenus of Mabug
citred two books by him, the first of which he called The
Fanqith (Book) of the Refutation of fews and Heresies (also
mentioned by the writer of the chronicle of Seert 18 ).
The second is The Fanqith (Book) of the Martyrs of Nisibin 19
which contains a collection of some of St. Ephraim’s
madrashes, mainly the fanqith on faith, the church,
unleavened bread, and Nisibin (which have been cited
by Anton ofTakrit. 20

To St. Ephraim was attributed a book entitled The
Cave of Treasures, which contains the story of Adam and
Eve after they had been expelled from the Garden of
Eden and the genealogy of the tribes of Israel. This book
was written in the sixth century. 21 Also attributed to him
was an excellent panegyric of twelve melodies on Jo-
seph, the son of Jacob. This, in the opinion of Bar
Shushan is either the composition of Isaac or Balai,
bishop of Balsh, and not the composition of some
teachers of the school of Edessa, as some writers thought.
The reader will also find in the three volumes published
in Latin between 1737 and 1743 by the two monks
Butrus (Peter) Mubarak and Stephen Awwad (Assemani)
about 300 maymars, most of which were ascribed to St

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Ephraim. They are, to be sure, the composition of some
of his disciples or the composition of Isaac, Jacob of
Saruj, Narsai or other. Between 1882 and 1902 Thomas
Lamy also published in Malines four volumes contain-
ing St. Ephraim’s maymars and hymns. Some of these
were also published in Oxford and Leipzig. Contempo-
rary scholars, however, are anxious to have a better and
more accurate edition of Sl Ephraim’s works.

Fifty-one of SL Ephraim’s treatises were translated
from Greek into Arabic in the eleventh century have
come down to us. The Syriac origin of these treatises has
been lost.* 2 The commentary of Sl Ephraim on the Holy
Bible and others of his writings were translated into
Greek either in his lifetime or in the first decade after
his death. 25 These translations were read by Gregory of
Nyssa who eulogized him in a magnificent homily.
Some of his writings were also translated into Arme-
nian, Coptic, Ethiopian and Latin.

Some contemporary critics hold the opinion that St.
Ephraim was a moralistic writer and preacher more
than a theologian. This is true, because very little of
dogmatic research is found in his maymars and songs,
even those distorted by the heretics. However, his
maymars gained fame and popularity on acccunt of his
holiness. Some critics state that what fascinates the
reader about St Ephraim are his firey mind and the
allegories in his poems. These brave and artistic pic-
tures and symbols and the broad imagination which his
poetry contained are characteristic of the oriental poets
- a style unknown to the Greek or Latin poets. However,
these critics say that St. Ephraim’s poetry has little
creativeness, lofty thoughts or enthusiasm. 24

Another critic, who is more fair, says thatwhat he (St.
Ephraim) has written was meant to be for the people
and monks and therefore did not penetrate deeply into
theological theories. However, in his moralistic dis-
courses he incorporated a spark of zeal and firey enthu-
siasm which permeated the core of the heart. All that he
has written, even though (topics) on which he wrote
with utmost prolixity, were in the eyes of his closest
readers a symbol of superb rhetoric; for the writer is the
reflection of his environment. 25

The claim that St. Ephraim has little creativeness,
lofty thoughts or enthusiasm is unfair. It is refuted by
the unanimity of those (scholars) who have sound taste.
Again, he should not be blamed for his prolixity, since
itwas a trait of the ancient Syrian writers and others. No
doubt, this method is incompatible with our modem
taste. Nevertheless, the least which could be said about
St Ephraim is that the comprehension of some of his
poems requires mental exertion. John of Atharb (d.
735) wrote to Jacob of Edessa, asking for the explana-
tion of some of St. Ephraim’s poems. How valuable it
would have been, if some brilliant scholars who lived
close to his time wlould have commented upon his
poems and unravelled their obscurities.

10-13. The Pupils of St. Ephraim

The most famous of St. Ephraim’s pupils are Aba, the
deacon Zenobius, Asuna, Simon of Samosata andjulian.
However, they do not have the genius of their master.

As to Aba, he wrote a commentary on the Gospels,
metrical homilies in the fifth-syllabic meter, a homily on
Job the Righteous 26 and a seven-syllabic ode. 27 Anton of
Takrit cited him twice in his treatise on the Chrism.

Zenobius was a d eacon at the church of Edessa. He is
known as “The Jazri” either in relation to the Upper
Jazira, i.e., the country of theBanu Rabi’a, or because at
the beginning of his career he was a soldier; but not in
relation to the Jazirat ibn Umar, which was not inhab-
ited at that time. Zenobius wrote down the biography of
his master and also wrote letters and treatises in refuta-
tion of Marcion and Pamphilius. 28 Bar Kifa cited him
twice in his Book of the Six Days.

Simon likewise wrote down the biography of his
tewcher; Julian ccmposed songs and wrote refutations
of Marcion and the doutful critics. He was eroneously
named Paulonas and was accused of heresy in the
Testament of his master. The entire writings of these
pupils, except for a few fragments, have been lost.

14. Asuna

Although it is mentioned in some manuscripts that
Asuna was the teacher of St. Ephraim, others maintain
he was Sl Ephraim’s pupil as was the case. Asuna was the
most intelligent of St. Ephraim’s pupils and had the
ability to manipulate freely in composition as well as in
the types of poetry, for he composed eloquent poetry in
the four-syllabic and the six-syllabic meters. Of his
poetry two poems for funerals have come down to us.
We have read in a British Museum MS. No. 14520
madrashes of masterful poetry in the five-syllabic meter
composed by a brilliant poet, which we think could not
have been composed except by one of St. Ephraim’s
pupils (Asuna). Anton of Takrit alluded to Asuna in the
tenth canon of the fifth treatise of his book The Knowl-
edge of Rhetoric. Although Asuna attained the highest
degree of ascetical virtues, yet he stumbled and fell into
a net of fantasies, where he finally died, a wretch. In this
regard, Philoxenus of Mabug wrote to Patrice, the
ascetic in the mountain of Edessa the following: “I think
that you have been informed about Asuna who had
been in Edessa and who had composed madrashes'which
(the people) chant until this our day. Because he
longed for these fantasies, Satan deceived him, lured
him out of his cell, made him stand on the Mountain of
F.stadiun and showed him the form of a chariot and
horses and said to him: ‘God has called you toliftyouup
by the chariot as he lifted up Elijah,’ and when he
became deceived for his foolishness and rose up to
climb the chariot, the fantasies vanished and he fell
down from a very high altitude and died a laughable
death. "This same account was mentioned byNicine the
Malkite, abbot of the Monastery of Mar Simon (d.

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1072), in the thirty-fourth treatise of his book Al-Hawi
al-Kabir (The Great Comprehensive Book) .

15. The Priest Absmayya

The priest Absmayya, or Abd al-Sama (The Slave of
Heaven ) is the son of St. Ephraim’s sister; most probably
he studied under St Ephraim. He became popular for
composing songs and maymars regarding the Huns’
invasion of Mesopotamia and al-Sham (Syria) in the
year 395, (according to a second account, in the year
404). The two dates could be correct because those
invaders twice attacked these countries. 29

16. Isaac of Amid (363-418?)

According tojacob of Edessa, Isaac was born at Amid
and studied under St. Ephraim during his short stay in
that city in the year 363, and later completed his study
under Zenobius, a pupil of St. Ephraim. He composed
excellent odes in the seven-syllabic meter. An Ortho-
dox, he became a monk at a monastery belonging to the
Western (Syrians) . According to the historian Zachariah,
bishop of Mitylene, “Isaac the Syrian Doctor lived in the
time of Arcadius and Theodosius (395-450), and be-
came publicly known after the time of St. Ephraim and
his pupils. He journeyed to Rome and other countries;
to Rome in the time of Arcadius in order to watch the
opening of the citadel of the Capitol. He composed two
poems on the secular games (celebrated at Rome) in
the year 404 and on the capture of the city of Rome by
Alaric in 41 0. U pon his return, he stayed for a short time
at the city of Byzantium and was also putintojail. When
he finally returned to Amid, he was ordained a priest.
He left many writings full of profitable information on
many topics from the Book of God (The Holy Bible) . 90
We will mention later the metrical hymns ascribed to
him and to his two namesakes. He is commemorated by
the Church.

17. The Monk Dada of Amid

In volume l,p. 103 of his Ecclesiastical History, following
hisaccounton Isaac of Amid, the same Bishop Zachariah
said: “The monk Dada who came from the village of
Simqa or Simqe in the neighborhood of Amid was a
brilliantmanwhohad been delegated by the dignitaries
to Caesar (to discuss) the captivity and the faminewhich
afflicted the countries in his time. He was courteously
received (by Caesar). We have found about three hun-
dred discourses or maymars written by him on many
topics of the scriptures and the affairs of the Saints. We
have also found madrashes composed by him.” All of his
compositions have been lost and no trace of them can
be found.

18. The Writer of the Biography of Eusebius of
Samosata

Saint Eusebius of Samosata, because of his piety,
good conduct and protection of the Orthodox truth,

was gifted by God to perform miracles. He was conse-
crated a bishop of Samosata shortly before the year 359,
fought the good fight in serving the persecuted Church
of God, and was exiled for the cause of its true faith. 91 He
died in 379 as a confessor and martyr of his zeal (for the
Church). Shordy after his death, his biography was
written by one of his contemporaries in an eloquent
style. This biography was published by Bedjan.

19. Cyrillona

Cryillona was a poet who had a good poetic style,
splendid introductory verses and subtle and charming
meanings. His style ranks with that of proficient poets
and does not fall short of the poetry of his forerunners.
We found no mention of him in the books of learned
men. However, his name is mentioned in a single old
manuscript at the British Museum, 92 which contains
eloquent poems, madrashes and a poem in the four-
syllabic meter which he composed on the pestilences in
his time, such as the pestilence of the locusts which
denuled the land of Edessa. This manuscript also con-
tains poems on the Huns’ invasion around the year 396,
the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, the Apostle Thomas
and a seven-syllabic poem on the grain of wheat. The
rest of the poems in this manuscript include six or seven
poems in five-syllabic meterand a portion of asughithon
Zacchaeus the Publican, all of which were published by
Bickell in 1870. Some contemporary writers claim that
Cyrillona is Qayora, the principal of the school of
Edessa, an incredible claim which cannot be positively
decided.

20. Ahi, Catholicosof al-Madain (Ctesiphon) (d. 415)

Ahi the Catholicos of al-Madain was an ascetic who

spent most of his time in fasting and in extending
charity to strangers. A doctor, he was consecrated a
catholicos at the end of the year 410 and died at the
beginning of the year 415. He wrote a book into which
he incorporated the chronicles of the martyrs of the
East. Besides, he wrote down the story of Mar Abda from
whom he adopted the monastic life. These chronicles
were fixed by Daniel bar Mary in his Ecclesiastical His-
tory. 99

21. Mana the Catholicos (d. 420)

Mana studied at Edessa and became well-versed in
both Syriac and Persian. He translated many books
from Syriac into Persian, but they are either unknown
or lost. After his consecration as a metropolitan of
Persia, he was promoted to the Catholicate See of al-
Madain, which he administered for a few months. He
was deposed in the year 420. M

22. Marutha of Miyafarqin (d. 421 )

This dignitary was a distinguished man of letters who
knew Syriac and Greek. In addition, he was a skillful and
pious physician, an intelligent sage and a clever states-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

man , whose good qualities were many an d whose achieve-
ments were commendable. He was ordained a bishop of
Miyafarqin in the eighth decade of the fourth century.
Photius relates that in the year 383, he (Marutha)
attended the Council of Sidon to refute the heretical
worshippers. He also journeyed to Antioch and some
parts of Asia Minor as well as Constantinople and
participated in the case of John Chrysostom and
Theophilius of Alexandria. For his excellence, he was
delegated three times in the years 399, 403 and 408, by
the Caesars Aracadius and Theodosius II to Yazdegerd
I, the Persian King. He remained in Persia un til 41 0, and
through his efforts, the Christians in Persian territory
obtained safety and were freed from their afflictions. In
the year 410, with Isaac I, catholicos of al-Madain, he
presided over a council which they held at Selueucia,
whose minutes have been incorporated in the Collection
of the Eastern Canons. Marutha wrote the biographies of
the most famous Eastern martyrs who were tortured by
tyrant Sapur II, nicknamed Dhu al-Aktaf “He of the
Shoulders” in the Forty-Years Persecution (339-379).
These biographies were first translated into Latin and
published by Assemani and were later published by the
monk Paul Bedjan. 55 They are most eloquent and inter-
esting biographies. The orientalists, however, doubted
whether these biographies belonged ipsissimis verbis to
Marutha. The writer of these biographies, was most
probably more than one, and they were written in more
than one place. Perhaps some of these biographies were
written at his (Marutha’s) request, and others were
written before his time, but he had them compiled in
order to translate them into Greek. The Subawi also
ascribes to him the translation of the canons of the
Council of Nicaea from the Greek into Syriac as well as
his history and the hymns which he composed about the
martyrs. He moved a great number of their noble
remains to Miyafarqin, which as a result, came to be
known as Martyropolis (The City of Martyrs). He is
thought to have died in the year 421.*

23. Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 435)

Rabula was born a heathen at the city of Qinnesrin of
a noble and wealthy ancestry, but his mother was a
Christian. When he was still a young man, Rabula
became Christian, distributed his property among the
poor, deserted his wife and became a virtuous monastic
at the monastery of Mar Ibrahim. In 41 1 he succeeded
Diogynus as a metropolitan of Edessa, which he admin-
istered for twenty-four years. He died on the seventh of
August, 435. He was ascetical in his own living, and very
firm and strict with his parishioners. When the Council
of Ephesus ccnvened in the year 431, he sided with the
Patriarch John of Antioch, but shortly later on he
leaned towards Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria. And
when he anathematized Theodore of Mopsuestiajohn
excommunicated him. During that time he translated
some of the writings of Cyril from the Greek into Syriac,

such as the book of The True Faith which he compiled
and sent to Caesar Theodosius. 56 In the year 433 John
and his party were reconciled with Cyril and Rabula. At
that time Rabula had acquired the greatest and most
profitable knowledge of the Syriac and Greek litera-
tures. He also wrote in Syriac the takhshejlos, which are
associated with his name, for the principal feasts and for
the Virgin (Mary), and the saints with some on repen-
tance and for the dead. These takhshejlos probably
comprised as many as seven hundred lines of (poetry) . 57
He also enacted for the monks, priests and ascetic
women eighty-nine canons which are preserved in the
books of ecclesiastical laws. 58 Furthermore, he wrote
forty-six letters to bishops, priests, princes, nobles,
monks, of which one letterwas delivered to Andrew, the
Nestorian bishop of Samosata, rebuking him for oppos-
ing the the twelve anathemas of Cyril. He also wrote a
letter to Gemellinus, bishop of Perrhe, rebuking some
who misused the reception of Holy Communion, 58 and
two homilies, one of which he delivered at
Constantinople, refuting the doctrine ofNestorius, and
the second on the dead. 40 In some of his lectures, Cyril
described him as “The Pillar ofTruth.” Rabula is counted
among the saints.

24. Balai, bishop of Balsh

No one in olden times happened to write down
Balai’s biography; even Jacob of Bartulli and Bar
Hebraeus had no precise information about him. How-
ever, some contemporary writers think he was one of Sl
E phraim’s pupils. More correctly, he had studied under
one of St. Ephraim’s pupils. What we do know about
him is that he was a chorepiscopus of the church of
Aleppo. He was also a companion and an associate of
Acacius, its metropolitan, whose death he witnessed in
the year 432 and whom he had eulogized in five elo-
quent madrashes composed in the five-syllabic meter. 41
According to Bar Shushan (d. 1072) he became a
bishop of the city of Balsh (Perpalisus), called today
Maskanah, which lies east of Aleppo to the south. 42 He
was also mentioned as having this rank (ofabishop) and
this generic name (of Balsh) in a Beth Gaz transcribed in
the year l7l6. 45 Furthermore, he was called “a bishop”
in a table containing the name of our scholars, tran-
scribed by Isaac, metropolitan of Cyprus in 1550. 44 Most
likely he died in the fifth decade of the fifth century,
because his name was not mentioned in the two Synods
of 449 and 451. Duval is mistaken in counting him
among the scholars of the fourth century.

Balai composed many poems in the five-syl labic meter,
which is ascribed to him. Most of these poems became
a part of our church rituals concerning repentance, the
dead and other briefs. It is quite unfortunate that no
one cared to compile his poems. In 1902 Zettersteen
published in Leipzig one hundred thirty-four poems
ascribed to him, sixty-five bear his name and sixty-nine
are thought to be his. 45 However, it is difficult to distin-

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

guish his poems because they are mixed up with those
of other poets. One of his compositions is a maymar on
the consecration of the church of Qinnesrin 46 which was
published by Overbeck together with the poems for-
merly mentioned. What most likely belongs to him is an
elegy of Uriah the Hittite which has been alluded to by
Anton of Takrit in the tenth canon of the fifth treatise
(of his book The Fnowledge of Rhetoric) , poems in praise
of Saint George, a poem on the death of Aaron 47 and the
account of Phostinus and Mytrodora in the story of
Clement of Rome. 48 Mention has already been made of
the select poem in praise ofjoseph the Righteous which
is ascribed either to him or to the Doctor Isaac. 49

25. The Deacon Jacob (451)

Jacob was a deacon and a man of letters in Edessa. He
accompanied Nonnus, metropolitan of Edessa, to
Antioch. He wrote the life story of Pelagia, who aban-
doned dissoluteness and repented through the efforts
of the previously mentioned magnanimous Metropoli-
tan (Nonnus) about the year 451.

26. The Monk Samuel (458)

Samuel became well-versed in the arts of literature,
entered the monastic life and kept the company of
Barsoum of Samosata, head of the anchorites, where he
was counted as one of his most noble disciples. Around
the year 458 he wrote down the story of his master,
which was already mentioned and to which interpola-
tions have been added. He also praised him by many
splendid maymars and madrashes, one of which we found
composed in the melody of “Rise up, O Paul.” A state-
ment at the end of the aforementioned story says that he
also wrote homilies on faith and on many other subjects.
Furthermore, he wrote excellent commentaries, and
treatises in refutuation of heresies, and composed po-
ems and hymns, all of which have been lost

27. The Priest Samuel (467)

The priest Samuel of Edessa was a bitter enemy of
Hiba (Ibas) theNestorian Metropolitan of Edessa, and
one of the first clergymen to commplain against Hiba to
the second Council of Ephesus in 449, as is evident from
reading his proclamation in the acts of this Council. He
also wrote Syriac treatises refuting his (Hiba’s) devia-
tion from the truth and also refuting the heresy of
Eutyches. Most likely he spent his life at Constantinople,
where he was still living in the year 467. He was men-
tioned, about the year 496, by the Latin writer Gennadius
of Marseilles in the twenty-eighth tract of his series
called Famous Men, in which he (Gennadius) followed
the book of Anba Hieronymous (Jerome) , which bears
the same tide.

28. The Priest Cosmas (472)

The priest Cosmas was born at the village of Fanir in
the province ofQallisura. He is reported to have written

a letter to Simon the Stylite, and on April 7, 472, he
wrote down in good Syriac style his (Simon’s) lengthy
biography at the request of Simon bar Apholon and
Barhattar son of Hadaurun.

29-30 The Two Priests Peter and Muqim

Gennadius of Marseilles mentioned that Peter, the
Presbyter of Edessa was a plain and fluent orator. He
composed maymars and hymns in the seven-syllabic
meter in praise of St. Ephraim. He lived about the year
490. Gennadius also mentioned in his tract one hun-
dred and seventy-one of Series of Famous Men that the
Presbyter Muqim of Mesopotamia refuted the heresy of
Eutyches around he year 494. This is all that is knowm
about these two Presbyters.

31. Isaac of Edessa, known as Isaac of Antioch (491?)

No one of the ancient historianswrote the biography
of Isaac the Edessan (by birth) and the Antiochian (by
domicile) . However, the first one to write about him,
quoting the learned authorities of his time, wasjacob of
Edessa. In his letter to John the Stylite of Atharib, Jacob
said, “This Isaac was an Edessan presbyter as well as a
poet and an Orthodox Doctor. He became highly fa-
vored in the time of the Caesar Zeno. He journeyed to
Antioch in the time of the Patriarch Peter II (470-488),
known as “Peter the Fuller” 50 during the Nestorians’
controversy (mainly against the Trisagion). At Antioch
he saw a man from the East carrying a parrot which
repeated the Trisagion, as the owner has taught it to do,
to check the obstinacy of those who opposed this for-
mula. He liked the spectacle and composed a Syriac
poem about it” 51 This poem was ascribed to him as Isaac
of Antioch because he resided in this city. He was also
mentioned by this generic name (of Antioch) in a
manuscript written in the seventh century, entitled
Selected Tracts of the Fathers. 52 However, in his history
entitled al-Unwan, Agapius the Malkite Greek bishop of
Mabug, who was living about the year 940 A.D. said,
“One of the scholars of this time (about the year 422)
was Mar Isaac, the pupil of St, Ephraim (sic), who had
his residence in Antioch. He has many maymars on
feasts, martyrs, wars, and the invasions which took place
at that time. Concerning his origin, he was from the
people of Edessa.” (sic). 53

In theyear 431, Isaac witnessed the Council of Ephesus
as is mentioned in the Series of the Councils. 5 * Therefore,
Isaac named Isaac of Antioch is this Isaac 55 and not Isaac
of Amid as was erroneously thought by the Orientalists.
He is also the one who composed the poem on the
earthquake which destroyed Antioch in the year 459
and the two poems on the invasion of Beth Hur about
the year 491. Furthermore, he did not die in the year
460 as the Orientalists claim. It is evident that Isaac of
Amid did not live until this time, because it has been
established that he was associated with St. Ephraim for
a period in the year 363 wnile he was, at the least, close

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

to twenty. His birth, therefore, must have occurred
about the year 343. Moreover, if he had lived to be one
hundred and seventeen years old, he or someone else
would have men tion ed this fact. Surely, th e most learn ed
Jacob of Edessa is the best informed of all the historians
about Isaac’s affairs.

32. Isaac, the Second, of Edessa (522)

Marjacob (of Edessa) himself related that this Isaac
was also an Orthodox clergyman at the church of
Edessa. Michael the Great and Bar Hebraeus state that
he was an abbot of a monastery and lived at the begin-
ning ol the sixth century in the time of Paul, metropoli-
tan of Edessa. He composed his poems according to the
Orthodox doctrine. But when Paul was deposed and
was replaced by the Malkite Bishop Asdepius who
began to propagate his own doctrine, Isaac joined
forces with him against Paul and proceeded to compose
poetry in support of his new doctrine.

The three Isaacs, namely, Isaac of Antioch and the
two Isaacs of Edessa, were poets who composed master-
pieces of poetry in the sevensyllabic meter. However,
because they lived about the same time and because
their poetical talents were very much alike, their poems
were confused among the transcribers so that their
distinction, except very rarely, became difficult. About
two hundred poems ascribed to them 56 have come down
to us, sixty-seven poems covering 837 pages were pub-
lished by Bedjan. They were composed by Isaac of Amid
and very few of them were composed by Isaac, the
Antiochian of Edessa. This published anthology by
Bedjan requires extensive investigation and elaborate
critical examination in order to distinguish the exquis-
ite poems which have been ascribed, in the Urmia copy,
to Isaac of Nineveh the Nestorian.

Following is a list of the published poems: (metrical
discourses): poems on the love of learning and the
humility of the brethren monks; eight poems on re-
buke, one of which scolds the blasphemers and another
on compunction; a poem on the dead; a poem on the
anchorite ascetics; a poem on the hereafter; four poems
on repentance; a poem on monks; a poem on Lazarus
and the rich man; a poem on renouncing worldly things
and on true freedom; a poem on those who complain
against each other during the time of prayer; a poem on
Lent; a poem on Constantine the King; three depreca-
tory or intercessory poems; a poem on the perfection of
the brethren monks; a hortatory poem on giving alms;
a poem on the sign which appeared in the firmament
and one against fortune tellers; a poem on fasting, alms
and monastic perfection; a poem against falsehood; a
poem on the natural discernment of the natural mind;
a poem on the verse from Isaiah “All flesh is grass; ” 57 a
poem on how Satan overcomes man in time of ordeal;
eight poems on Solitaries; a poem on the perfection of
monks and their renunciation of the world; two poems
on the invasion of the town or village of Beth Hur in the

province of Edessa (within the Roman-Byzatine terri-
tory which was invaded and desroyed by the Arabians in
the year 457). He also mentioned that the Persians
inculcated the people of this village with Sun worship
and implanted worship of idols in the Arabians. And
when the Arabians invaded it, they inculcated its inhab-
itants with the worship of Venus and Uzi. The inhabit-
ants of Beth Hur had an idol called Jizlath. They also
worshipped the sun and the moon. There were also
Christians in Beth Hur, but they perverted Christicanity.
He also said that the Arabian bedouin invaders were
barefooted, corrupt and dissolute. Moreover, they
slaughtered their sons and daughters as a sacrifice to
the Planet Venus. However, after the invasion they were
murdered by the swords of the Persians, and the rest of
them were annhilated by the plague. Then the Huns
came and invaded the Persians (sic). He composed
these two poems in the year 491.

Of his published poems are also a poem on the
blasphemers; on the changeableness of creation and of
the mind; on the giving of alms; two poems on faith; a
poem on stating everything that God does is meant to be
for the benefit of man, be it captivity, war, famine or
death; a poem on the saying of the poet: “Who would
dismantle my body then rebuilt me and restore me as a
new virgin in my creation;” a poem on faith and on the
refutation of Nestorius and Eutyches; a poem on the
suffering of the Word of God who was incarnate and on
his non-suffering; a poem on the bird which shouted
the Trisagion ; a poem on faith and on the Body of our
Lord; a poem on faith in refutation of the heresies of
Nestorius and Eutyches; a poem on our Lord and on
faidi;apoem on dieincarnadon of our Lord; a poem on
the chariot; a poem on the worldly vigil which took
place in Antioch and which he opposed by the recita-
tion of the verse from the Psalms: “I t is good to thank the
Lord” and two poems against those who resort to sooth-
sayers.

There are also seven maymars at the library of St.
Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem on the Nativity, the
Virgin, Baptism and the Holy Eucharist. 58 There are also
several maymars at the Zafaran library. 59 the Patriarch
John bar Shushan had proceeded to collect the poems
of St. Ephraim and Mar Isaac, but death prevented the
completion of his effort. At the Vatican library there is
a manuscriptcontaining sixty maymars, copied from Bar
Shushan ’s copy. 60 A second copy of the same manu-
script contains forty maymars. 61

Of the composition of Isaac the first and Isaac the
second, we also have sughilhs, 62 of which one is com-
posed on the reality of the divinity and the humanity of
Christ againstcontentious heretics. Itbeginsthus: “The
voice of the Church ran in my ear.” We have translated
the text of this sughith and published it in Arabic. 65
Furthermore, we have daily supplications 64 as well as
sixteen madrashes on the Eucharist and three madrashes
on the coming of our Lord. 65 There are poems fraught

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

with theological, literary, philological, ritualistic and
social benefits. All of them are clear evidence that their
composers are masterful and natural poets of the first
class.

33. The Chorepiscopus Polycarp (508)

Polycarp the Chorepiscopus of the diocese of Mabug

was a skillful translator, well-versed in the literatures of
both the Syriac and Greek languages. He achieved fame
in the period between 500 and 508 by translating the
Holy Bible from Greek into Syriac at the request of
Philoxenus, metropolitan of Mabug. He called this
translation by the name of Philoxenus and hence it
came to be known as the Philoxenian translation. 66 The
first parts of the Holy Bible which he translated were the
Pauline Epistles, then the New Testament, i.e., the
Gospels. He then followed by translating the Psalms. If
we may believe a comment mentioned in one of the
manuscripts. Polycarp is also thought to have translated
some Books of the Old Testament because some verses
from the Book of Isaiah translated according to the style
of Lucian the martyr were found in Polycarp’s transla-
tion. 67

He, Polycarp, may have been the first to translate the
Epistles of St. Paul into Syriac, if we take into consider-
ation the statement of Moses bar Kifa that these Epistles
were translated into Syriac four hundred and thirty-six
years after the martyrdom of the Apostle, that is, in 503.
Baumstark is of the opinion that the oldest Syriac
translations of the Book of Revelation also date back to
that time. This opinion may be true regarding the Paris
Polycarp manuscript and the four minor Epistles. 58 The
Orientalists, however, are not unanimous in attributing
one of these two translations to Polycarp.

This Philoxenian translation has become rare be-
cause it was overshadowed by the Heraclean transla-
tion. The copies of the Gospel in the libraries of Flo-
rence, 69 Rome, 70 and New York 71 are thought to contain
this translation. A copy of the Acts of the Apostles is to
be found at the Cambridge Library.

The translation of the Epistles of St. Paul was made by
the effort and care of Philoxenus in the year 508. This
translation was later revised by the Heraclean (Thomas
of Heraclea) in the year 616. The Orientalist Lebon
thinks that a copy of the Polycarp or Philoxenian’s
translation has not been found yet.

34. Stephen bar Sudayli (510)

Stephen was bom al Edessa in the second half of the
fifth century. He entered a monastic order and led a
good life at the beginning of his career. While still
young he journeyed to Egypt and adhered to a man
named John, who indoctrinated him with the doctrine
of pantheism, which purports that the One God is in the
whole of created things. He publicized this doctrine in
Edessa and because of itwas expelled from that city. He
went to Jerusalem, where he found Origenian monks

from his persuasion. He proceeded to correspond with
his disciples in Edessa. In those days, about the year 5 10,
Mar Philoxenus of Mabug wrote to Ibrahim (Abraham)
and Orestes, presbyters of Edessa, concerning him. In
his letters to these presbyters, Philoxenus mentioned
that Stephen made mystical commentaries on the To-
rah and the Psalms, and that after declaring perpetual
punishment in Hell as false, he forsook this belief to
adopt sheer pantheism, declaring that every nature is
co-substantial with the Divine Person and Divine Es-
sence. He continued that the errors of this atheist and
his platitudes found no approval with anybody and that
he was excommunicated by the Church. In his reply to
the fifth question of the deacon Yeshu al-Tirminazi,
Patriarch Cyriacus wrote that “the book ascribed to
Hierotheos 72 the teacher of Dionysius the Areopagite is
not his (Stephen’s). Some think that it was written by
Bar Sudayli the heretic.” However, Chabot and other
Orientalists do not hold this opinion. 75

35. The Deacon Simon the Potter (514)

Simon was a magnificent church poet. He was bom
at the village of Kishir in the province of Antioch. He
took the making of pottery as a craft and hence became
well known as “the Potter” or “Quqai” in Syriac. While
working on his wheel, Simon composed eloquent and
elegant religious poetry sung in a beautiful melody
which he called Quqai His poetry covered many sub-
jects, such as the Nativity of our Lord, His Resurrection
and His miracles; Christ on the Cross, Prophets, The
Virgin Mary, the Saints, the dead and repentance.
Around the year 510, Mar Jacob the Doctor (Jacob of
Saruj) heard of him while on some of his journeys and
went to see him. He heard him singing these fine songs
in his shop. He praised him and encouraged him to
continue composing. Also he took copies of these songs.
It is said that in 514 he showed these poems to the
Patriarch Severus after he translated parts of them into
Greek, which made the patriarch urge the poet to
compose more poems of this nature.

Simon also composed songs on the Nativity of the
Lord in other melodies, ofwhich twenty-eightlines only
came down to us. 74 Simon had pious, learned and well-
mannered companions of his type who, shared with him
the composition of songs. These companions were
called the Quqaye, 75 whose poems have entered the
Church’s rituals and choral books. Jacob of Edessa,
from whom we copied most of this biography, said, “the
shop of Simon and his wheel are still known in the
village of Kishir until this day” (that is from 700 to 708) .

36. John Rufus the Antiochian, bishop of Mayoma
(515?)

John Rufus from the Rufina Family was born at
Asqalan. He studied jurisprudence at the school of
Beirut. He corresponded with the Patriarch Peter the
Fuller, who ordained him a priest. He was known as the

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

“Antiochian.” He kept the company of Peter the Ibe-
rian, entered a monastic order and succeeded Peter to
the bishopric of Mayoma in Palestine. Around 515, he
wrote chronicles and narratives in the Greek language,
eighty in number, which he called Plephoriae 76 in refuta-
tion of the Council of Chalcedon. These chronicles,
however, contain a great deal of unsubstantiated infor-
mation which does not withstand criticism. They were
translated in a firm style, abridged and incorporated by
Michael the Great in his History. They were also trans-
lated into French and published by Nau in 191 1 , 77 John
is also thought to be the author of the biography of his
predecessor, Peter The Iberian, the style is interesting
and contains profitable historical and geographical
information. It was translated into German and pub-
lished by Raabe.

37. The History ascribed to the Priest Joshua the
Stylite (515?)

About 515, a brilliant Edessene writer thought to be
an instructor at a School in Edessa, 78 wrote a history in
eighty-three pages, containing the calamities and events
which took place in Edessa, Amid and Mesopotamia. He
opened this history by a reply in seven pages addressed
to Sergius the abbot who suggested he write this history.
Also, he wrote an elaborate introductory chapter in ten
and a half pages, in which he mentioned the reasons for
wars between the Persian and the Roman states from
363 to 498. He also wrote about the events from 495 to
the end of 506, most important of which is the fierce war
between Qabadh the Persian king and the Caesar (em-
peror) Anastasius (502-506) , dwelling, of course, on the
happenings and events in his time. 79 This history is the
most complete and trustworthy historical documents of
those events. The author also mentioned that he found
some of the information which he compiled in ancient
books, whereas he copied the rest from the ambassa-
dors of the Persian and Roman sovereigns. This history
has a unique copy in the Vatican MS. 162, dated 932,
which, because it is anonymous, has been ascribed by
Assemani, who published its abridgement, 80 and the
majority of the Orientalists, to the presbyter Joshua the
Stylite, a monk of the Monastery of Zuqnin, 81 in Amid,
on the grounds that the name of this author was men-
tioned at the end of the letter by Elishah, a monk from
the said monastery. 82 The opinions of writers differ
regarding this history. Some writers ascribed it without
evidence tojoshua the Stylite, while others ascribed it to
an anonymous Edessene professor or monk, as is prob-
ably the case. Writers also disagree on the belief of the
author, who was most likely, a moderate Orthodox. 83
Alhough he had praised Flavian II of Antioch, he
likewise praised Caesar (emperor) Anastasius,
Philoxenus of Mabug, Jacob of Saruj and others. 84 The
text of this history was first translated into French and
published by Paul Martin in 1876. Itwas then translated
into English and published by William Wright in 1882

followed by Chabot who translated it into Latin and
published in 1927 the first volume, pp. 235-317, of the
history erroneously ascribed to Dionysius.

38. The Doctor Mar Jacob of Saruj (d. 521 )

Jacob of Saruj is a proficient and a natural poet of
great genius who is unrivaled and unequaled. An unre-
strained writer and one of the princes of language,
Jacob wrote with eloquence and creativeness. He is
more of a poet than a writer. His poems attained wide
popularity and spread everywhere. His poetry finds its
way directly to the heart and amuses those who listen to
it One never reads one of his poems without becoming
infatuated by it. Jacob’s poetry contains masterpieces
and beauties which astound the mind and arrest the
heart It is also characterized by immaculate style and
perspicuity, exquisite themes, masterful expression,
and firm and clear form. Jacob is a prolific poet who
composed lengthy poems, some of which contain two
thousand, three thousand or more lines of poetry.
Besides his composing introductory verses and magnifi-
cent endings, he is at home with poetry. The more he
penetrates his poetical theme, the more he enriches it
with eloquence and beauty, and the more he creates
new terms, delicate expressions, and brilliant tech-
niques, which drive away boredom and alert the reader
that he is opposite a mighty ocean full of literary pearls
and uncommon objects.

Read his maymars on exhortation and renunciation
of world pleasures and repentance; you will find that
before you have finished reading that your heart has
renounced earthly things and that it has become filled
with the love of piety and devotion. No matter how far
you are from righteousness, his maymars will incline
your heart to knock at God’s door and to adhere to God.
How excellent he is in fathoming the diseases of the soul
and in their proper treatment and how smooth is his
style if it met attentive hearts and meek souls. Thus, his
tongue was a spring of wisdom, and he himself was one
of the chosen of God and the most famous of the saints
of his time, the age of faith, heroism and Orthodox
religious principles. May God bless an age which pro-
duced distinguished men like Philoxenus of Mabug,
Paul of Callinicus.John of Talla, Zacharaiah ofMitylene,
John bar Aphtonia, Severus of Antioch and their like -
unequaled authorities who are seldom found in any
age. Therefore, the Church has done an excellent thing
by naming him the “Doctor” par excellence as well as
the “Cithara of the Holy Spirit,” the “Harp of the
Orthodox Church,” and the “Crown of the Doctors,
their ornament and their pride.”

MarJacob was bom at the village of Qawartum on the
Euphrates, but he is also said to have been born at
Hawrah in the district of the city of Saruj in 551. He
graduated from the School of Edessa, where he had
acquired a great share of the sciences of philology,
philosophy and theology. He became a monk and an

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

ascetic. When he was twenty years old he extemporized
his famous ode, The Chariot of Ezekiel, in the presence of
five bishops who had suggested it to him at the church
of Batnan Saruj (according to another weak source, at
the church of Nisibin). 85 The bishops admired his
poetical talent and licensed him, trusting that God has
distinguished him with His favor.

He was ordained a presbyter and then granted the
rank of a Periodeutes for the city of Hawrah, after which
he journeyed through the lands of the Euphrates and
inner Syria, carrying out his task properly. He was well
received, loved and trusted by hundreds, nay, thou-
sands of monks for his piety, honesty and knowledge. At
the end of his life he was made a bishop of the diocese
of Batnan Saruj in 519, and administered his diocese
most appropriately for one year and eleven mon ths. He
died on November 29, 521 , being seventy years of age.
He is commemorated by the Church. A long time later,
some of his remains were removed to a private shrine in
the city of Diyarbakr.

Certain men studied under Doctor Jacob and ben-
efited from him. Of these is his secretary Habib of
Edessa and an ascetic named Daniel. According to Bar
Hebraeus seventy copyists were assigned to write down
his poems, which had been collected and totaled seven
hundred seventy poems, first of which was The Chariot of
Ezekiel and the last, Golgotha, left unfinished because of
his death. All of these poems are composed in the
dodecasyllabic meter which he invented and which
came to be known in his name as the Sarujite meter.
These maymars (poems) covered commentaries on the
most important subjects of the Old and New Testa-
ments. They also treated subjects such as faith, virtue,
penance, resurrection, graces for meals, the dead, and
praise of the Virgin, the Prophets, the Apostles and the
martyrs. He made specific mention of the saints Peter,
Paul, Thomas, Thaddeus, John the Babtist, Guriyya,
Shamuna and Habib, Sergius and Bacchus, the People
of the Cave, George, the martyrs of Sebaste, Ephraim,
Simon the Stylite. In the mornings and evenings, the
Syrian church chants a group of his choice maymars in
praise of the Lord of the Universe, thus perpetuating
the memory of their author.

Our libraries at the Zafaran, Jerusalem (St. Mark),
Mardin as well as the libraries of the Vatican and
London, British Museum, contain more than four hun-
dred of these maymars most of which are written on
parchment 86 And if you realize that the monk Paul
Bedjan published two hundred maymars in five thick
volumes, you would estimate that their total number
comprises nineteen volumes. Seventy-seven of these
maymars had been selected and added to the collection
of the homilies for the whole year in a manuscript which
I found at Basibrina, which is different from familiar
collections. We have also read madrashes by him in the
meter “God who asscended on Mount Sinai,” (of which
the first is on the Saints) and two sughithson penitence. 87

Some copies 88 ascribed to him a philosophical, alpha-
betically arranged sughith of twenty-two lines in the
melody of “Lord make me drink from thy spring,” which,
according to Mingana, belonged to Jacob of Edessa. 89 He
also composed songs on the pestilences of locusts which
befell the country in the spring of 500 A.D. 90

As to his prose writings they consist of letters of the
utmost beauty and elegance. They are written in a
masterful, and exquisite style. A selected collection in
316 pages containing forty-three of these letters has
survived, they were published in 1937 after three British
Museum MSS. of which the oldest and the largest was
finished in 603. 91 These letters are:

1 . A letter to Stephen bar Sudayli the heretic (before
adopting heresy) refuting his delusions and advising
him to improve his conduct by resorting to piety. (This
letter followed an earlier one which he wrote to him
guiding and calling him to the right path; later, he
excommunicated him in a synod which comprised
some bishops); 92 2) a letter on faith; 3) a letter to the
priest Thomas on faith; 4) a letter to Antonius, bishop
of Aleppo; 5) a letter to the priestjohn; 6) a letter to the
monks at Arzun, the citadel of the Persians; 7) a letter
to the monks of Mount Sinai; 8) to Mar Habib, a letter
of peace on the resurrection; 9) a letter to Julian the
Archdeacon; 10) a letter to Stephen the Notary on the
salvation works of Christ; 11) a letter to the Ascetic Paul;
12) an (imperfect) letter; 13) a letter to the monks of
the convent of Mar Basuson the works of Christ; 14) an
entreating letter to the monks of the Monastery of Mar
Basus; 15) a letter from the monks of Mar Basus to him;
1 6) his reply to them; 1 7) a third letter to them which is
unique as well as decisive evidence of his adherence to
the Orthodox faith; 95 18) a letter to the Himyarite
confessors in Najran; 19) a letter on faith to Samuel,
abbot of the Monastery of St. Isaac atGabula;20) a letter
to the citizens of Edessa, reminding them of the prom-
ise of Christ to King Abgar; 21) a letter to the abbots
Antiochus, Samuel, John, Sergius and Ignatius on the
Nativity of the Lord; 22) a letter tojacob the abbotof the
Monastery of Nawawis; 23) a thirty-six page letter to
Marun in reply to six Biblical problems which Marun
submitted to him in a language other than Syriac; 24) a
letter on the saying of Our Lord “And whosoever
speaketh a word agains the Son of man, it shall be
forgiven him, but whosoever speaketh against the Holy
Ghost it shall not be forgiven him,” 94 25) a letter to some
of his friends; 26) a consolatory letter to Mara, bishop of
Amid; 27) a letter to the ascetic Daniel concerning his
unwillingness to serve as a priest; 28) a letter on the
contrition of the Soul; 29-30) a letter to some of his
friends; 31) a letter to a friend on the Great Saturday;
32) a letter to Paul, bishop of Edessa, on the verse: “Love
thine enemies;” 95 33) a letter to Eutychianus, bishop of
Dara, on faith; 34) a letter to Simi consoling him for the
death of his son; 35) a letter to Basaconte (prince) of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Edessa; 36) a letter to the Comes (Count) Cyrus, the
chief physician, on the interpretation of the true Faith;
37) a letter to the two harlots Leontia and Maria who
repented and became recluses; 38) a letter to a solitary
who used to see specters and visions of demons openly;
39) a letter to Daniel the Solitary; 40) a letter to some
ascetics; 41 ) a letter to his friend Simon; 42) a letter on
virtuous life to a poor man seeking the salvation of his
soul; 43) a letter to one of his friends. We have also read
aletterbyhim, notmentioned in his anthology, to some
of his friends beginning thus: “Had not the distur-
bances of this wicked world troubled thee.” We also
read some discourses by him. 96

The author of the chronicle ascribed to Joshua the
Stylite related on page 280 that “During the panic which
seized the people as a result of the Persian-Byzantine
War in 503 A.D., the inhabitants of the countries lying
to the east of the Euphrates began a mass migration.”
Jacob wrote, advising them to remain in their home-
land, and encouraging them with the hope that they
would find safety by Providence. No one of these letters
survived except the twentieth letter, which he delivered
to the people of Edessa.

We have also found eleven festal homilies written by
him for the Nativity of Our Lord, the Epiphany, the
Presentation of Our Lord in the Temple, Lent, for the
Thursday preceding Palm Sunday, for Palm Sunday, for
Good Friday, for the Sunday of Unleavened Bread, for
Easter Sunday and for Low Sunday. The latter begins
thus: “An intense joy full of understanding urges me
today.” Another discourse on repentance begins thus:
“We should not grieve because the thread of our life has
reached its end and that from day to day it is about to be
cut off.” 97 Also he wrote consolatory discourses and two
liturgies: the first in 519, beginning thus: “O God
creator of everything visible and invisible,” in 24 pages, 98
and the second beginning thus: “O blessed and compas-
sionate God, whose name is from time of old.” 99 A
twenty-one page copy is in our library, beginning thus:
“O God the Father, thou art the peace which has no
limit” He also composed the prayer of peace which is
recited during the celebration of the Eucharist on
Christmas festival, and some prose hymns (shubahe) 100
for receiving the Holy Eucharist, an order for Baptism 1 01
and the biographies of the two ascetics Daniel ofjalsh
and Hannina. 102 Bar Hebraeus stated that, “He also has
commentaries, letters, madrashes and sughiths, im and
that he wrote a commentary on the six hundred Apho-
risms of Euagrius, at the request of his disciple, Mar
George, bishop of the Arabs.” As this George died in 725
A.D., the commentary, therefore, either belongs to
Jacob of Edessa, or the statement of Bar Hebraeus was
added by some scribe. However, this book has been lost.
In 1095, the most learned man of his time, Said bar
Sabuni, metropolitan of Melitene, composed a unique
ode in praise of the qualities and writings of this emi-
nent Doctor. 104

39. Habib of Edessa

Deacon Habib of Edessa was an associate of Jacob of
Saruj under whom he studied, served as a scribe and
from whom he learned the art of composing poetry. 105
But no established poem has been ascribed to him.
However, a poem beginning thus was ascribed tojacob
of Saruj: “OJesus the light whose brightness riseth in all
of the countries,” 106 which was erroneously attributed by
later writers to George his disciple. Moreover, it has not
been mentioned in an authenticated manuscript 107 We
have read a more precise text of this ode beginning
thus: “OJesus the light whose appearance has delighted
all the countries,” which is either anonymous or was
composed by some aliens. 108 The Jerusalem copy con-
tains a marginal note by the monk Sergius of Hah in
1483, stating that it is the composition of John bar
Shushan. He may be right, because some of its lines
contain what would deny its attribution to Habib, espe-
cially his saying: “Liftupyour mind, Oman, to those first
as to those in the middle.”

Critics disagree about this Sergius. Some believe him
to be George, bishop of Saruj while others think he was
bishop of Hawrah who was ordained in 698 and to
whom Jacob of Edessa addressed his famous letter on
Syriac orthorgraphy.

40. Mar Philoxenus of Mabug (d. 523)

Philoxenus was a master of eloquence and a distin-
guished philologist. An outstanding person in intelli-
gence, knowledge and deeds, he was also abstinent and
God-fearing. His style was stately and lucid. He master-
fully portrayed good manners and sublime Christian
virtues, producing a book on the perfect fife which
contains much benefits and is written in an infinitely
beautiful style.

Philoxenus thoroughly studied the origin of reli-
gion. Read his book on The Trinity and the Incarnation,
and you will find this master well-versed in theological
matters and fathoming their depths. Read his letters
and you will know what an ambitious soul and magnani-
mous heart he had. He was an indefatigable contestant
whose challengers, always defeated, retaliated by
dispraising him. Moreover, he was patient in enduring
ordeals and hardships for the cause of the Orthodox
faith until he won the crown preserved for those who
struggle for the faith and the wreath of confessors.

Philoxenus was born atTahlin Beth Garmai (in Iraq)
shordy before the middle of the fifth century. His Syriac
name, Akhsnaya (Stranger) was changed upon his ordi-
nation as a bishop, into the Greek name Philoxenus
(Lover of Strangers) . While young, his parents took him
to Tur Abdin, where he entered the Monastery of
Qartamin with his brother Addai to study Syriac and
Greek literatures and the science of religion. Later, he
transferred to the School of Edessa and finished his
philosophical and theological studies. But it was at the
great Monastery of Talada in the province of Antioch

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

that he finished his studies of Greek and Syriac. Then he
became a monk and was ordained a priest. In 485, he
was ordained by Patriarch of Antioch, Peter II, a
chorepiscopus and then bishop of Mabug. Philoxenus
made utmost efforts to defend the true belief of the
Orthodox Church. He participated in the doctrinal
disputes ofhis time and ardently opposed the Nestorians
and the Chalcedonians, who were angered by his inten-
sive defense. This situation caused their extremists to
antagonize him, while some of them even vilified him
with slanderous remarks, showing that they were full of
spite, foolish talk and erroneous views. But he refuted
all of them. 109

In 499, he went to Constantinople to complain to the
emperor against Flavian II of Antioch who was wavering
in his faith, but the Persian Wars with the Byzantines
prevented the investigation of the case. When peace was
established, he revisited the capital and was able to have
Flavian deposed and Severus of Antioch installed in his
place in 5 1 2. However, Justin, who succeeded Anastasius,
exiled the Orthodox bishops in the Fall of 518.
Philoxenus was then banished to Philippopolis in Thrace
and later to Gangara in Paphlagonia. At Gangara, he
wasjailed in a house with its openings blocked and a fire
burning inside. He died suffocating from smoke, as a
martyr for his faith, on December 10, 523, in the eighth
decade ofhis life after he had been a bishop for thirty-
eight years. He is commemorated by the Church.

The writings of this most learned church dignitary
include commentaries on theological, polemical, liter-
ary, ascetic and ritualistic subjects. They also contain
letters and discourses.

1 . It is stated in his lengthy biography that he wrote
an elaborate commentary on both Testaments, which
was quoted by Bar Salibi. An old British Museum MS.,
transcribed at Mabug in 511 during the author’s life-
time, contains portions of the commentary on the
Gospels according to St. Matthew, St. Luke and St.
John. 110 Other copies, however, contain selections from
the gospels, a commentary on the parable of the ten
talents, and a discourse on faith, a commentary on the
words of Peter, “Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of
God.” 111 His commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew
was cited as a testimony by Iyawanmis (J ohn) of Dara in
part five ofhis book Paradise, and by Moses bar Kifa in
his book On the Creation of Angels. Also, he has a discourse
based on the words which the Aposde Paul quoted from
the books of philosophers and an anonymous writingas
well.

2. In theology he has two works, the first of which
comprises three discourses on the Trinity and the Incar-
nation. It was translated into Latin and published by
Vaschalde in 1908. The second is on “the Incarnation
and Suffering ofonePerson of the Trinity,” in which he
cited the Greek writings of some church scholars before
they were translated into Syriac. This translation testi-
fies to his knowledge of Greek, contrary to the opinion

of some Orientalists, He also wrote ten discourses, two
of which were translated into Latin and published in
1920. There are two old copies of these two works
written on vellum. 112 Furthermore, he wrote four Con-
fessions of Faith, one of which begins thus, “We believe
in the Trinity of one eternal nature,” 115 ten chapters
against the decision of the Council of Chalcedon, 114
seven chapters against those who advocate the necessity
of condemning only the invalid part of the teachings of
heretics while not condemning them completely or
their writings in their entirety. 115 He also wrote a dis-
course on the unity of the two natures of Christ, and one
on the man who violates excommunication by the
priests ofhis own will. A third discourse, in two pages, is
entitled “If a man is asked how he believes, he should
answer thus,” and a fourth discourse is on the unity of
the body of Christ.

3. The polemical writings. Philoxenus’ 116 biographer
states that he wrote six treatises against the Nestorians
and thirteen more against the Chalcedonians. Of the
first, only two treatises remain, the first in twenty chap-
ters and the second in five chapters: a disputation with
one of the Nestorian writers and a discourse declaring
the Nestorians’ teaching as well as that of the Eutychians
as false. Of the second there remain two treatises, one in
twelve chapters and the other in ten chapters, and
another discourse in seven chapters being against both
the Nestorians and the Eutychians. He also wrote a
treatise containing his belief and a refutation of her-
esies, and another treatise in which he distinguished
between the heresies of Mani, Marcion, Eutyches,
Deodorus and Nestorius. In addition, he wrote three
chapters in refutation of heresies. Seven of these trea-
tises in forty-one pages were published by Budge. 117 He
has also a treatise against Habib al-Attar (druggist).

4. His valuable book on the perfect Christian life in
thirteen treatises, covering five hundred pages in one
volume is considered the best ofhis writings. He wrote
it shortly after becoming a bishop and adorned it with
the eloquence and precious counsels. In this work he
discussed the method of becoming a disciple of Christ.
Its contents include the following: faith, simplicity,
humility, (voluntary) poverty, asceticism, worship of
God, and resistance of some vices, such as gluttony, lusts
of the body and debauchery. This book was translated
into English and published by Budge in two elegant
volumes in 1894. 118

He also wrote discourses on monastic regulations,
the fear of God, on humility, on repentance, on prayer,
on how to remedy the whims of the soul, on virginity, on
tonsure, on a discussion with the brethren monks, on
tranquility of worship, on the monastery, organization
and on aphorism. 119

5. As to rites, he wrote two liturgies, the first in twenty
pages beginning thus: “O Lord God Almighty, who is
beyond perception and the Compassionate whom the
minds cannot comprehend.” The second begins: “O

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Lord God Almighty and Holy, whose peace is beyond
the comprehension of all minds.” Furthermore, a third
liturgy is ascribed to him. 120 He has also drawn an
extremely short order for the Baptism of dying in-
fants, 121 a manith (hymn) on the Nativity of Our Lord
and supplicatory prayers among which are a prayer to
be recited on rising from bed and another one begin-
ning, “O Lord thou are a true God and Lord,” a suppli-
cation to be recited privately by the person. He also
wrote a prayer for the seven canonical hours, and
prayers for the morning, the third hour and vespers as
well as two prayers to be recited before and after the
reception of Communion and a prayer on contrition. 122

6. Philoxenus wrote splendid and elaborate letters
containing many profitable lessons in theology, history
and asceticism. According to his biographer, these
letters fall into twenty-two parts. However, only twenty-
one of these letters survive in European libraries. To
these we added other letters which we found in the
libraries of the East. These letters are:

1) A thirty-six page letter to Patricius, the ascetic, of
Edessa on the keeping of the commandments of God
and resisting the whims of the soul; 123 2) a letter to the
Emperor Zeno on the Incarnation of God, the Word
and His becoming a man (in which he declared the
excommunication of Nestorius and Eutyches); 124 3) a
letter to the Christians of Arzun on the Mystery of the
Incarnation; 4) a letter to a monk who had recently
renounced the world; 125 5) a letter to Ibrahim and
Orestes the presbyters of Edessa concerning Stephen
bar Sudayli the heretic ascetic; 126 6-7) two letters to the
monks of the Monastery of Gugel (the Mountain of
Bagugel in Tur Abdin) on the Passion of the Lord
Christ (The first, covering ten pages, begins thus:
“Christ has manifested the light of Salvation;” the sec-
ond, covering thirty-five pages, begins thus: “To the
noble monasteries,” in which he praised the monks’
replies and told them that they were well-received by the
Emperor Anastasius); 127 8) a letter to the monks on
heretics; 9) a fifty-four page letter to one of his friends
(who was an ascetic in the wilderness) on the beginning
of man’s asceticism in this world, his obedience in the
monastery, 128 his residence in a cell and his practice of
tranquility. In this letter, he divided the ways of asceti-
cism into four stages; 10) a letter entitled “To the
Monasteries of Amid,” 129 addressed to these monks on
zeal for faith; 11-12) two letters to the monks ofTalada,
the first of which he wrote in his exile. In the second he
refuted the allegations of his opponents as well as the
opponents of truth, praising Acacius the presbyter and
abbot of the Monastery ofTalada for his good fight; 150
13) a letter to the monks of the Monastery of Senun in
Edessa concerning the Incarnation of the only Word of
God, in which he included an account of Nestorius. He
wrote this letter during his exile at Philippopolis; 151 14)
an elaborate letter in thirty-three large-size pages which
he wrote at Philippopolis addressed to the monks and

abbots of the East, in which he described his calamity as
well as the courses the church followed in bygone time
to establish peace; 152 15-16) two letters to Simon, the
abbot of the great Monastery of Talada, the first on
church policy, and the second in fourteen pages written
at Philippopolis against those who falsely claim that the
Church lost the gift of the Holy Spirit after the Council
of Chalcedon. This letter (in fourteen pages) begins
thus, “I have a desire and plea;” 155 17) an exhortatory
letter to a convert from Judaism who attained the
highest degree of perfection; 154 18) a letter to Marun
the lector of Ayn Zarba; 155 19) letters to the inhabitants
of Arzun and the faithful in Persia; 20) a letter tojohn,
metropolitan of Amid, reminding him of their friend-
ship when they were students at the Monastery of
Qartamin; 156 21) a letter to a disciple of his; 157 22) aletter
on the beginning of asceticism in the world; 158 23) a
letter to a lawyer who practiced asceticism and was
tempted by Satan; 159 24) a letter to the Himyarite Chris-
tians during the adversity inflicted upon them by Masruq
thejewish king because of their Christianity; 25) a letter
to Count Thales, who asked him about the theory of the
Tree of Life. This letter was much quoted by John of
Dara in part five of the book of Paradis d 40 and also by
Moses bar Kifa; 26) a letter of thanks which he wrote at
Gangara to the monk Bar Niqina, the doer of miracles,
of the Monastery of Mar Hanania. This letter was men-
tioned by the historian Zachariah; 141 27) a letter to Abu
Hafar (or Afar), 142 the military governor of Hirat al-
Numan, on the history of heresies, particularly
Nestorianism, beginning from Sabelius and up to
Nestorius and Eutyches. I found portions of this letter in
three British Museum MSS., 145 and another portion at
our patriarchate library in Hims. To this letter has been
connected an account of the Christian Turks written by
an anonymous author who has quoted the narrative of
Lazarus, the Armenian bishop of Herat and of two
Armenians, a priest and a merchant who had come to
Antioch and related this news; 144 28) a letter to those
ascetics who confined themselves to worship; 145 29) a
letter in reply tojohn II of Alexandria. 146

7. His homilies. His biography mentions that he
composed homilies in five volumes for principal feasts
and on the acts of Our Lord. According to Bar Hebraeus,
“he also wrote homilies for festivals and other diverse
homilies,” 147 most of which were lost. However, those
homilies known to us are: two homilies on the Annun-
ciation of the Virgin and on the Nativity of Our Lord 148 ;
a homily on the Son of Life, which was cited by Moses
bar Kifa in his treatise on the Soul; a homily on a person
who asked him whether the Holy Spirit departs from a
man when he sins, and returns to him when he re-
pents; 149 a homily on the death of a brother 150 and a
paraenetic discourse. 151

41. The Ascetic Barlaha

The priest ascetic Barlaha was a recluse in the cell of

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Elisha the Ascetic called the Monastery of the Chariot
He was known for being one of the translators of the
Septuagint made in the sixth century and of large
portions which survived. It is related that upon his
request. Abbot Simon (who will be discussed below)
translated the Psalms from Greek into Syriac.

42. Simon, abbot of the Monastery of Beth Liqin

Simon was abbot of the Monastery of the Virgin

known as Beth Licinius in the Black Mountain. He was
well-versed in Greek and Syriac. It is evident from his
reply to Barlaha that he proceeded to translate the
Psalms with much effort This translation turned out to
be different from the translations familiar to the Syr-
ians, particularly those which correspond with the com-
mentary of Basilius the Great on the first Psalm. He also
mentioned the book of Eusebius in the contents of each
psalm. 152 Moreover, he incorporated into his transla-
tion chapters on the Psalms written by Didymus, Origen
and Athanasius. This is the collection of Psalms which
the Syriac translation of the Septuagint contains. You
will find the letter of Barlaha and the reply of Simon in
the Vatican MS. 135. It is also said that he wrote a short
commentary on some of the psalms. Both Barlaha and
Simon were still living in the first quarter of the sixth
century. 155

43. Paul, bishop of al-Raqqa (528 A.D.)

Paul was an eminent scholar who acquired great
knowledge of both Syriac and Greek literatures. He
became a bishop of al-Raqqa in the first decade of the
sixth century. But in 519 he was caught by the Caesarian
persecution for his belief, as a result of which he moved
to Edessa. He labored in translating into Syriac the
writings of Severus of Antioch, which are Severus corre-
spondence with Julian of Halicarnassus the Phantasiast
on the incorruptibility of the body of Christ, 154 a dis-
course against him and against his addition (Appendi-
ces) 155 as well as a refutation of Julian’s protest, 156 pre-
ceded by an introduction in which he indicated that he
had translated itwith much difficulty. He also translated
Severus’ treatise against the Manicheans and his book
entitled Philalethes (Lover of Truth). Evidently, he also
translated the one hundred twenty-fifth homily of
Severus, which he delivered from the pulpit, 157 his
correspondence with Sergius Grammaticus, and his
treatise against John Grammaticus, in two volumes,
which he finished in April, 528. 158

Mar Paul rendered great services to the Syrian church
and its literature by translating these magnificentworks,
for which he won the sobriquet of “The Translator of
Books. ” He also composed a manith for the con secra tion
of Chrism. We do not know the year of his death.

44. Mara, metropolitan of Amid (d. 529)

A descendant of a noble family and the son of
governor Constant, he was born at Amid and raised in

the best manner in the bosom of prosperity. His educa-
tion was in both Greek as well as in his own tongue,
Syriac. Later he became a monk in the Monastery of St
Thomas of Seleucia, where the news of his virtuous life
and fasting spread widely. He became the steward of the
church. During the persecution, 159 and while the patri-
arch of Antioch was in exile, Mara was ordained a
bishop by the laying of the hands of the Bishops of
Miyafarqin, Agel and Samosata around 520. He was
congratulated byjacob of Saruj for his elevation to the
bishopric. After a short time, he was banished for his
Orthodox faith, by the Emperor Justin, to Petra, the
ancient capital of the Nabateans. With him was also
banished Isidore, bishop of Qinnesrin. He was accom-
panied in his exile by his virtuous sisters Shamuni and
Martha, who had brought him up in the way of virtue,
and who encouraged him to endure this ordeal. He was
also accompanied by his secretaries, the deacon Stephen,
a man of eloquence, Thomas the ascetic, the deacon
Zota and Sergius. Later, he was transferred to Alexan-
dria through the effort of the Princess Theodora, around
524, where he lived in commendable patience while
utilizing his time by reading and study. Furthermore, he
established a library which contained many valuable
books and profitable sources ofinformation for diligent
lovers of knowledge. After spending eightyears in exile,
he died around 529, and his remains were carried by his
two sisters and disciples to his homeland and buried in
the church of Mar Shila, which he had built They also
carried his library to the church of Amid. His biography
was written by John of Ephesus. 160

Mara wrote many books in Greek. Zachariah, bishop
of Mitylene, quoted part of his commentary on chapter
eight of the Gospel of St.John which has not yet been
translated into Syriac. He also quoted a chapter from his
commentary on the Gospels and another one from the
acts of Christ. 161

45. Sergius of Ras Ayn (d. 536)

Sergius of Ras Ayn was a philosopher and a man of
profound knowledge. He was also an efficient writer
who had great command of language. He was a priest
from a Syrian stock and the chief physician of Ras Ayn
(Theodosiopolis) in the Jazira where he was probably
bom. He became famous for his eloquence. He studied
sciences at Alexandria and both the Greek and Syriac
sciences. His noble writings testify that he studied the
philosophical and medical sciences extensively. Al-
though he was an Orthodox, yet he avoided the theo-
logical disputes of his time and sometimes vacillated in
his religious doctrine. T o Th eodor e the N estorian bishop
of Maru, he dedicated two of his works. In 535 he
journeyed to Antioch to lodge a complaint before the
Patriarch Ephraim of Amid against Asylus, bishop ofRas
Ayn. Ephraim delegated him to go to Rome to invite
Agape tus of Rome to come to Constantinople. He went
and brought Agapetus back with him. Agapetus and

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Ephraim collaborated against An thimus of Constan tinople
and Severus of Antioch. During this time Sergius died at
the Capital in the spring of 5.%, followed byAgapetus who
died a few days later. 162 Most of our historians dispraise
Sergius for his life and conduct.

His known works are a discourse on Faith which he
wrote about 485-488, but is now lost; fundamental
treatises on logic in seven sections; a treatise on nega-
tion and affirmation; a treatise on the causes of the
universe, according to the principles of Aristotle; a
treatise on genus, species, and individuality, which is
imperfect; a book on De Simplicium Medicamentorum and
a treatise on the purpose of the writings of Aristotle,
both of which he dedicated to Theodore. This treatise,
which covers two hundred ninety-four pages, was tran-
scribed by the deacon Zeno, son of the priest Sulayman
of the family of the priest Abu Salim in 1187 for the
deacon and chief physician Abu al-Hasan. 16 ’ However,
the most conspicuous of the works of Sergius are his
translations from the Greek into Syriac, the most well-
known of which are the Isagoge of Porphyry; the Catego-
ries of Aristotle; the being of the world, and a treatise on
the soul in five sections, 164 as well as a portion of the
works of Galen comprising three books on the treatise
entitled De Simplicum Medicamentorum Temperanenlis ae
Facultatibus , 166 Itis, however, doubtful whether the trans-
lation of the treatises on Geoponica or agriculture as-
cribed to Galen belongs to him. 166

These works contain a great deal of useful philologi-
cal and geographical information as well as many bo-
tanical terms. Furthermore, the translation of the fa-
mous philosophical and theological book ascribed to
pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite on the divine names,
the celestial hierarchy and the priesthood, which he
prefaced with an eloquent introduction, indicate the
influence of his (Dionysius) mystical teaching on him. 167

46. John of Talla (d. 538)

John of Talla was one of the best church dignitaries
regarding asceticism and worship, one of the greatest
militants for the Orthodox faith and an authority on
religious sciences and proofs. Born in 483 at al-Raqqa of
a rich family and brought up in the best manner, he
received an education in both Syriac and Greek litera-
tures. Then he joined the army for a short period, but
he became fond of asceticism which led him to enter the
monastic life in 506 at the Monastery of Mar Zakka
outside al-Raqqa, where he studied theology and reli-
gious science. He was ordained a priest, and in 519 was
elevated to the episcopate of Talla. 168 Two years later he
was exiled by the Caesar Justin for his adherence to
Orthodoxy, and found refuge in a place in the lands of
the Jazira, but finally settled in Sinjar. 169 From every
direction believers journeyed to Sinjar to hear the
decisive truth from him, while he offered them his
personal opinion and counsel. Because of the persecu-
tion and exile of bishops, John ordained several thou-

sands of clergymen for the visiting believers. 176 He
remained thus for sixteen years, while maintaining the
most austere ascetic life. He visited Persia three times
and also journeyed to the capital, Constantinople, in
532-533 to defend doctrine. Later he returned to his
solitude, until his opponents were finally able to arrest
him through the Persian Magi, governor of Nisibin. In
537 Ephraim, the Malkite Patriarch of Amid held a
council atRas Ayn in an attempt to induce him to accept
his doctrine, but he failed. Therefore, he detained him
through the cruel authority of the state in a monastery
near the gate of Antioch and ill-treated him, but he
endured his ordeal with patience until he died in
February, 538, at the age offifty-five. He was considered
a true Confessor of the Faith and was commemorated by
the Church. 171 His lengthy biography was written by his
disciple and companion, the monk Elijah, and was
abridged by John of Asia. Both the original and the
abridged biographies have been published.

Among the writings of John of Talla are forty-eight
canons, in five pages, compiled for the monks of his
monastery. Some of these canons he incorporated into
the book of Ecclesiastical Laws. A copy of these canons is
preserved in the collection of old laws. 172 He also wrote
twenty-seven canons, in ten pages, containing com-
mandments and exhortations for the clergy. In some
copies these canons are entided thus, Canons by John of
Talla to be Observed by the Clergy, Especially the Priests of
Villages? 7 * a forty-two question in ten pages, suggested to
him by his disciple, the priest Sergius, and which he
answered; 174 a letter in fifteen pages containing the
confession of faith which he delivered to the monaster-
ies, priests, deacons and monks of his diocese in the
name of the abbots of the monasteries. It begins thus,
“The Apostle Paul has laid down for us a spiritual
foundation which the waves of heresy cannot shake;” 175
acommentaryon the Trisagionin two pages 1 76 and many
other letters which the monk Elijah alluded to in his
biography.

47. St. Severus of Antioch (d. 538)

Severus was a great church dignitary, the luminary of
scholars, the Crown of the Syrians, the pride of the
Patriarchs of Antioch, an outs tanding authority and the
unique erudite of his generation. He was also a great
theologian, a profound and prolific writer and an elo-
quent orator who had a great control of the pulpit.

To him flocked eminent jurists and men of good
conscience seeking solution to problems and interpre-
tation of complex matters. What a man he was, a man
who built up and upheld the edifice of religion, and
supported and explained the authority of the Orthodox
faith. He was pure in heart, soul and character, a
possessor of the keys of wisdom and decisions. 177

Severus was born at Sozopolis in the province of
Pisidia around the year 459 A.D. His grandfather (on
his father’s side) was one of the bishops who attended

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (431 A.D.) . At
Alexandria, he studied grammar and rhetoric in both
Greek and Latin, and jurisprudence and philosophy at
the school of Roman jurisprudence in Beirut. He was
baptized at the church of Tripoli in 488. 178 Later he
chose the way of asceticism and became monk in the
Monastery of St Romanus in the city of Mayoma in
Palestine and was ordained a priest by Bishop
Epiphanius. Then, he built a monastery and remained
there for twenty-four years, worshipping God and prac-
ticing the virtues of asceticism and studying the Holy
Bible and the writings of theologians. He began to write
to support Orthodox doctrine and his fame spread.

In 508, he journeyed with two hundred monks to
Constantinople to defend the doctrine and remained
there about three years until 5 1 1 . A year and a few more
months later, Flavian II, patriarch of Antioch, was de-
posed, and Severus was elected by the Holy Spirit to
succeed him to the Apostolic See. He was consecrated
a patriarch in Antioch on the 6th of November, 512,
after which he opened the treasures of his knowledge in
preaching and explaining the realities of faith and
morals. During his leadership as a patriarch he never
deviated from the path of his asceticism and abstinence.
So, he removed luxurious living from the patriarchal
palace, while devoting his energy to reform and the
dispensation of church affairs by visiting the neighbor-
ing dioceses and monasteries in person or by letter.
When Justin I, the Chalcedonian, succeeded Anastasius
in 518, he banished a group of our Orthodox bishops,
antagonizing Severus who left for Egypt on the 25 th of
September and remained there for twenty-four years. In
Egypt, Severus administered the church through his
deputies or his letters. With indefatigable energy, he
wrote book after book against heresies and deceivers,
answered letters and gave personal opinions on legal
matters. When he faced a difficultproblem, he searched
for light in the Holy Bible or turned to the resolutions
of councils for assistance. In 535, he went to
Constantinople in answer to the invitation of Justinian
I, in pursuit of unity. At the capital, he won Anthimus,
patriarch of Constantinople, to his side, but the gap
between the two parties remained wide. Then he re-
turned to Egypt where he died at the city of Sakha on the
8th of February, 538. He was crowned by the Church as
the Great Doctor of the catholic Church. The Church
also commemorates him on the day of his death. His life
was written by four eloquent writers who are Zachariah
Rhetor, John, abbot of the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya,
Athanasius I, patriarch of Antioch, and an anonymous
author.

The writings of Severus cover polemics, rituals, com-
mentaries, homilies, and letters. They enjoy the highest
respect All of these writings are in Greek and have been
translated into Syriac by Syrian scholars.

Of the first, the polemical are:

1-2) Two treatises in refutation of Niphalius, the

Alexandrian monk; 179 3) the book of Philalethes which
he wrote in defense of the writing of Cyril of Alexandria
and other writers, in which he showed that the oppo-
nents of Orthodoxy falsified the opinions of the Doc-
tors of the Church in three hundred thirty places in the
writings of these Doctors; 4) a defense of the correct-
nessofhisbookPAz7afet/ies; 180 5) a book in three volumes
against the Malkite Bishop John Grammaticus of
Caesarea, which he started writing at Antioch and fin-
ished in Egypt; 181 6-7) two books in refutation ofjulian
the Phantasiast, bishop of Halicarnassus; 182 8) a treatise
against Sergius Grammaticus the Eutychian; 185 9) a
treatise against the Malkite priest John of Scythopolis;
10) a treatise against Philixismus in two parts; 184 11) a
treatise against the Manicheans; 185 12) a treatise against
the covenant of Lamphytius, containing the heresy of
the worshippers; 186 13) a treatise against Alexander, part
of which was published by Brooks at the end of volume
four of the letters of Severus; 187 14) a letter to the
patrician s Paul and Aphiun against the heresy ofEutyches
and also a dialogue for Anstas.

Of the second (ritual writings) there is a magnificent
book containing the maniths, splendid anthems or hymns
which he composed. The maniths begin with a verse
from the Holy Bible and continue with an elegant style
which inspires awe and the love of God. These maniths
number two hundred and ninety-five and are as follows:

Twenty homilies; fourteen hymns on the Nativity of
Our Lord and on martyrs; thirteen hymns on the
Epiphany, on the miracles of Our Lord and for Holy
Sunday; nine hymns on Lentand on the baptized; eight
hymns on the dead; seven hymns on the Palm festival,
Pentecost, pestilences and compline; six hymns on the
Mother of God and on earthquakes; five hymns on the
Passion of Our Lord, the Resurrection and the Forty
martyrs; four hymns for the funerals of the clergy and
monks and for children. There are also three hymns on
each one of the following: Judas, the Passion of Our
Lord, the Holy Cross, John the Baptist, chanting after
the reading of the Gospel, the death of rain and the
Persian War. In addition, there are two hymns to be
recited before the reading of the gospel on Sunday
night and the other days of the week, on the entrance
into the Baptistery, the children of Bethlehem (Massa-
cre of the Innocent) , on the martyrs Stephen, Romanus,
Babylas, Sergius and Bacchus, the Maccabees, Drasis
and on the saints Basil, Gregory, Ignatius and
Chrysostom, on the Church, on the invasion of the
Huns, on condemning lewd spectacles and dancing, on
eulogizing his scribe Peter and on the funeral for
children. Also, he wrote one hymn on each of the
Chrisms, the wife of Pilate, the Good Thief, Mid-Pente-
cost, the Twelve Apostles, the Aposde Paul, the Evange-
lists Mark and John, the Evangelist John, the Apostle
Thomas, the prophets, Zachariah the prophet, Job, and
the martyrs Leontius, Sergius, Mina, Simon the Stylite,
Anba Antonius, the Coptic martyrs, the Persian martyrs

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Juventinus, Longinus and Maximus (who became mar-
tyrs under Julian the Apostate). 188 Other hymns were
also devoted to the Himyarite martyrs, the martyrs
Theda, Euphimea and Pelagia and all of the bishops as
well as Ignatius, Peter of Alexandria, Gregory
Thanmaturgus, Athanasius the Great, Basil, Gregory
and Parphyry of Antioch, Cyril of Alexandria, the Em-
peror Theodosius the Less, the Caesars (emperors)
Constantine, Honorius, Gratian and Theodosius the
Great and the one hundred and fifty Church Fathers.
Besides these, there is one hymn apiece on the graves of
strangers, on Easter Sunday, chanted before the recep-
tion of the Holy Communion, on Ascension and Pente-
cost, on martyrs, a hymn to be chanted during the
reception of the Communion, on the Nativity of Our
Lord, on the baptized, on the Ascension, on the Virgin
Mary, on the martyrs and on the commemoration of the
bishops, on Sundays after the celebration of the Eucha-
rist and before the bishops leave for the diocesan home.
Finally, he wrote a hymn each for after the Epiphany; on
giving thanks after the falling of rain; on the Brumalia;
concerning the monks when he (Severus) returned
from visiting the monasteries; on the ninetieth Psalm;
on the funerals of priests, nuns, chaste widows and on
the dead; and on a woman who was converted from the
Arian heresy. Brooks, relying on two British Museum
MSS., translated and published these hymns in 1909. 189

Severus also drew up a liturgy beginning with “O
God, Creator of all things, especially man;” an order for
the Benediction of the Chalice, i.e., the pre-blessed
Eucharist; an order for Baptism and the Benediction of
water at the Epiphany, together with some supplica-
tions.

Of the third type of his writings, namely commentar-
ies, are a commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, 190 a
commentary on the apocalypse of Ezekiel, 191 as well as
Biblical topics and verses which may be found in his
homilies and letters referred to by Bar Salibi in his
commentary on the Gospels and by Bar Hebraeus in his
book The Storehouse of Secrets.

Of the fourth type (his homilies) are one hundred
and twenty-five homilies called “Homiliae Cathedrales,”
preserved in three large volumes at the Vatican and at
the British Museum. 192 Three homilies are at the library
of the Zafaran monastery and at our (patriarchate)
library. Fifty-one of these homilies were translated into
French and published in three volumes. 198 The follow-
ing are the most famous of these homilies:

Six homilies on the Nativity of Our Lord; five homi-
lies on the Epiphany; four homilies on Lent; four
homilies on Basil and Gregory the Theologian
(Nazianzen); three homilies on the Incarnation, deliv-
ered at Cyrus; two homilies on the preparation for
entering into the Baptistery (one of which covers 22
pages), and on the Ascension, Repentance, and the
New Year; the Mother of God; on answering questions
propounded to him; on the Synodical letter addressed

to Timothy III of Alexandria and on the martyr Drosis.
He composed one homily on each of the following
subjects: on John the Baptist, on the Palm festival, on
the Saturday following Pentecost, on Golden Friday, on
the wedding at Cana of Galilee, on the man who was
bom blind, on the children of Bethlehem (Massacre of
the Innocent), on the Wednesday of the Passion Week,
on the Encaenia of the cross, on the commemoration of
the dead, on the poor and on strangers, and on the fact
there is no disagreement between the Evangelists re-
garding the Resurrection of Christ. Also we find one
homily apiece on Athanasius of Alexandria, the Confes-
sor; on Antonius, the founder of monasticism in Egypt;
on the Maccabees; on the protomartyr Thecla; on the
martyrs Leontius, Domitius, Sergius, Bacchus, andjulian
(who was martyred un der Diocletian ) , T arachus, Probus,
Andronicus, Procopius, Phocas, Barlaha and
Thallelaeus; on the commemoration of the Saints in the
week following Easter, and on the anniversary of his
(Severus’) consecration. There is also one homily on
each of the following: on his arrival at Qinnesrin and his
reception by the townspeople, a valedictory homily
delivered upon his intention to visit the villages and
monasteries; an admonitory homily addressed to those
who, after prayers, resort to the theatre; on the calami-
ties reported to have befallen the city of Alexandria and
on the number of sinners. He also wrote homilies
expounding Biblical verses, such as that based on the
saying of the Lord to the Scribes and Pharisees, “But ye
say whosoever shall say to his father or to his mother ‘it
is a gift;’ 194 a homily on “And Simon’s wife’s mother was
taken with a great fever;” 195 a homily on “Who is the
greatest in the Kingdom of heaven;” 196 a homily on “A
certain man went down fromjerusalem toJericho;” 197 a
homily on the period which Our Lord remained in the
grave; a homily on the Lord’s saying, “All sins shall be
forgiven unto the sons of men, and blasphemers where-
with soever they shall blaspheme;” 198 a homily on the
verse, “Blessed are the poor in spirit; 199 a homily on the
Lord’s saying, “Whom do men say that I the Son of man
am?”; 200 a homily on the Apostle Paul’s advice to Timo-
thy, “And exercise thyself rather unto godliness;” 201 a
homily on the Lord’s saying to Mary Magdalene, Touch
me not for I am not yet ascended to my Father;” 202 and
homilies on expounding Orthodox doctrines, one of
which is on the Trisagion.

Of the fifth type of his writings are his innumerable
letters, estimated at three thousand and eight hundred,
a number no other church father is known to have
written. These letters were collected in olden times in
thirty-two volumes, of which four were written before
his elevation to the patriarchate, ten during his patri-
archate (512-518) and nine during his exile (518-538).
Of these, only two large volumes survived, one of which
is enti tied The Sixth Book of the Selected Letters of Mar Severus
ofAntiochi translated by the priest Athanasius of Nisibin
in 669 A.D. Between 1904 and 1915 Brooks translated

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

into English and published 230 letters in four volumes,
some of which have been abridged from the original. 205
All of these letters are splendid and full of abundant
theological, legal, historical and administrative infor-
mation, which reflect the light of that great and noble
soul. These letters number two hundred thirty, most of
which are of medium length. One of these letters covers
sixty-one pages; a second one covers thirty pages; a third
covers twenty-nine; the fourth twenty-six; the fifth four-
teen; and the sixth ten pages. The first two volumes
contain one hundred twenty-three letters; the third and
the fourth, one hundred seven letters compiled from
twenty-six old copies (of which twenty are in the British
Museum and the rest are in Paris, Rome and Berlin),
which date back to the period between the sixth and the
thirteenth centuries. 205 Of some of these letters only a
few lines survived. Following is a list of these letters:
Letters 1 , 205 and 206 were addressed to Constantine,
bishop ofLaodicea; Letters 2, 3, 4, 19,23,26,41,and21 1
addressed to Solon, bishop of Selencia in Isauria; Letter
5 to Peter, bishop of Apamea; Letters 6 and 82 to Bishop
Nicias; letter 7 to Castor, bishop of Perga; letter 8 to the
DuA^Timostratus; letter 9 to Stephen, bishop of Tripo-
lis; letter 1 0 to Bishop Eucharius; letter 1 1 to the abbot
of the convent of Basus; letter 12 to the priests Cosmas,
Polyeuctus and Zeno; Letters 13, 18 and 136 to
Eutrechius, bishop of Ayn Zarba; Letters 14, 15, 16 and
151 to Antonius, bishop of Aleppo; Letters 17 and 123
to the chamberlain Misael (Michael); letter 20 to the
bishops of the province of Ayn Zarba in the name of a
Synod; letter 21 to the chief chamberlain; Letters 22, 42
and 1 12 to the Fathers; Letters 24 and 84 to the presby-
ter Theotecnus the archiater; Letters 25, 33, 74, 85 and
87 to Dionysius, metropolitan of Tarsus; Letter 27 to
Musonius and Alexander, Vindices of Ayn Zarba; Letter
28 to Philoxene, bishop of Doliche; Letters 29 and 199
to the monks of the convent of Mar Isaac in Gabul;
Letters 30 and 39 to the clergy and magistracy of
Apamea; letter 31 to the bishops of Phoenicia; letter 32
tojohn, bishop of Alexandria the Less; 205 letter 34 to the
bishops of the diocese of Apamea; letter 35 to the priest
Eustathius; letter 36 to Eusebius the deacon of Apamea;
Letters 37 and 38 to Simon, bishop of Qinncsrin; letter
40 to General Hypatius; letter 43 to Simon, abbot of the
convent of St Simon; letter 44 to Eutychianus, magis-
trate of Apamea; letter 45 to Conon, “the chaser of
thieves” (the chief officer of the police), letter 46 to the
clergy of Antaracus; Letters 47 and 108 to Cassianus,
bishop of Busra; letter 48 to Philoxenus, bishop of
Mabug; Letters 49, 50, 52, 65,91,92, 149 and 150 to the
presbyters and abbotsjohn andjohn - the last two letters
were addressed to them as well as to the abbotTheodore;
Letters 51 and 171 to the priest Philip; letter 53 to the
Syrian bishops residing at Alexandria; 206 letter 55 to
Theodore, abbot of the monastery of Romanus; letter
56 to Bishop Proclus; Letters 57 and 58 to Bishop
Didymus; letter 59 tojulian, abbotof the convent of Mar

Basus; letter 60 to Photius and Andrew, priests and
abbots of the convents of Caria; 207 Letters 63 and 69 to
the deacon Misael; letter 64 to the patricians; letter 66
to the Orthodox laity of Hims (Emesa); letter 148 to the
clergy of Hims and the magistracy; letter 67 to the Count
Anstasius, the son of Sergius; letter 68 to Ammanius and
Epagathus; Letters 70, 80, 121, 172, 175, 212, 213, 214,
215, 216, 217, 218, 219, and 230 to the patrician lady
Caesaria; 208 letter 71 to Zachariah of Pelusium; Letters
72 and 195 to Ammonius, presbyter of Alexandria;
Letters 73 and 169 to Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexan-
dria; letter 75 to Cosmas, abbot of the Monastery of Mar
Cyrus; letter 76 to the Count John of Antaradus; letter
77 to the abbotjohn Canopites; Letters 78 and 88 to the
Orthodox laity of Antioch; Letters 79 and 111 to the
lector and notary Andrew; letter 81 tojohn the magis-
trate; letter 83 to the conven t in T agais; letter 86, a noble
letter in 30 pages, against those who claim that it is
necessary to baptize or anoint afresh those who have
renounced the doctrine of the two natures in Christand
re-adhered to the doctrine of one nature in Christ;
Letters 89 and 100 to Simon, abbot of the Monastery of
Talada; letter 90 to Simon, abbot of the Monasntery of
Isaac; letter 93 to Bishops Proclus and Eusebius; letter
94 to Bishopsjohn, Philoxenus and Thomas who lived
on the mountain of Mardin; Letters 95 and 203 to
Sergius, bishop of Cyrus and Marion, bishop of Sura;
Letters96, 133 and 135 to Bishop Eleusinius; Letters 97,
208, and 209 to the lector Aschelaus ofTyre; letter 98 to
the deaconess and abbess Valeriana; letter 101 to
Nonnus, bishop of Seleucia; letter 1 02 to Victor, bishop
ofPhiladelphia; letter 103 to Stephen, bishop of Apamea;
letter 104 to the wife of Calliopius the patrician; letter
105 to the youthful monk Eustathius; letter 106 to
Isidora; letter 107 to the lector Stephen; letters 109 and
197 to the advocate Aurelius; letters 110 and 196 to the
advocatejohn of Busra in answer to two legal questions;
letter 1 13 to Theodore, bishop of Olbe; letter 114 to the
Countess Thecla; letter 115 to Alypius; letter 116 to a
lady which he wrote on behalf of an abbot for the
solution of a legal question; 209 letter 117 to Theodore
the magistrate; letter 1 18 to Conon the Silentiary; letter
119 to Theodore, a Byzantine monk; letters 120 and 1 61
to the monks of the Monastery of Mar Basus; Letters 1 22
and 191 to Georgia, the daughter of the governess
Anstastia; letters 124, 125, 126 and 181 to the Count
Oecumenius; letters 127 and 224 to Simius the librar-
ian; letter 1 28 to the advocate Eusebius; letters 1 29, 1 30,
131, and 132 to Marun, the lector of Ayn Zarba; letters
137 and 139, a protest to Thomas his secretary; letter
131 to the wandering monks; letters 142, 144, 180 and
210 to the Ceuw/Isidor; letter 146 to the presbyters and
abbots Jonathan, Samuel andjohn the Stylite and the
rest of the Orthodox laity in the churches of al-Anbar
and Hiratal-Numan; letter 147 tojohn the Byzantine on
the meaning of the three immersions at Baptism and on
the Chrism; letter 152, 189 and 190 to the priest Victor;

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

letter 153 to the advocate and physician Sergius; letter
154 to the Orthodox brethren at Tyre; letter 155 to the
priest and abbot Neon; letter 1 56 to the priest and abbot
Elisha; letter 157, a universal letter to the monks of the
East; letter 158 to Isaac the advocate; letter 159 to the
monk Charisius; letter 159 to the priests Peter,
Ammonius, Olympidorus concerning the naming of
Peter, bishop Alexandria; 210 letter 160 to the presbyters
of Alexandria; letter 162 to Musonius, bishop of Miloe
in Isauria; letter 163 to the advocate Theophane; letter
164 to Urbane Grammaticus; letter 165 to Sateric,
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia; letters 1 66, 1 67 and
168 to the advocate Eupraxius; letter 170 to Eumnituis
the chamberlain; letter l7l to the priest monk Philip;
letter 176 to Zenobius; letter 177 to the priest Andrew;
letter 178 to John, abbot of the Monastery of Mar
Hanania; letter 179 to the nunneries; letters 182, 183
and 184 to the chamberlain Euphraxius; letter 185 to
Phocas and Euphraxius the chamberlain; letters 186,
187 and 188 to the deaconess Anastasia on the question
of the true Faith; letter 188 to the County Dorotheus;
letter 191 to the Patricia Georgia and her daughter;
letter 192 to Bishop Philoxenus; letter 194 to the gen-
eral Probus; letter 198 tojohn; letters 200 and 201 to the
Count Sergius the chief physician; letter 202 to the
priest Leontius; letter 204 to the advocate Ammonius of
Busra; letter 207 to Proclus; letters 220 and 221 to
Thomas, bishop of Marash (Germanicia) ; letter 222 to
Theotecnus; letter 223 to the deaconess and abbess
Jannia; letter 225 to Euraneus; letter 226 to Zachariah;
letter 227 to Metraeus and letter 228 to Heracliana. In
addition to these are a letter which he wrote to some
citizens of Antioch upon his departure for Egypt be-
cause of the persecution of the 25th of September,
518; 211 two Synodical letters tojohn II of Alexandria 212
and Theodosius of Alexandria in 513; 215 two letters to
Anthimus of Constantinople and to Theodosius; 214 three
letters tojulian, bishop of Halicarnassus; 215 three letters
to Sergius Grammaticus; a letter to the Emperor
Justinian; 216 a letter to the priests and monks upon his
departure from the capital; 217 a letter on the state of
souls and spirits before and after the Resurrection and
in the last Judgment, beginning thus, “Our beloved in
the Lord, you may know that the souls and spirits; 218 a
letter to the monk Peter who claimed the corruptibility
of the soul; 219 and four letters mentioned by the ascetic
monk Sergius of the Monastery of Micaea - one to the
advocate Theophane, one to the Orthodox laity of Tyre
concerning Epiphianus, their bishop, one to the magis-
trate of Tyre and one to Marina, bishop of Beirut. 220

Having learnt about the works of this great dignitary
and his comprehension of the principles and branches
of sciences which testily that he was not only unique in
his generation, but also unequaled among the patri-
archs of Antioch who preceded or succeeded him, let
the judicious reader fairly judge his (Scverus’) preju-
diced opponents who underestimated his excellence

and even forced Justinian to bum his writings and
severely punish those who copied or possessed them. As
a result, his Greek writings were lost, but their Syriac
translations survived, thanks to the effort of our schol-
ars. Whenever published, these writings brought forth
anew evidence of the excellence of their author and the
cogency of his decisive proofs. Also, they turned the
attention of the scholars from the traditional disparage-
ment of him to admiration and respect. Gustave Bardy
stated in summary the following: “In his activity and far-
reaching endeavor, Severus resembles Athanasius the
‘Apostolic Father’ in many aspects. He was opposed by
many intellectual writers of all parties, but he refuted
them. It has been his writings which have been pub-
lished to this date (1928) have proved that he was one
of the men who possessed the highest abilities and true
determination in an age marred by a great deal of
degeneration and abasement.” 221

48. John bar Aphtonya (d. 538)

John bar Aphtonya is unquestionably one of the
eminent, eloquent, and noble monks and abbots of
Edessa. Generous, and chivalrous, he was born the fifth
child among his brothers, shortly after the death of his
father. Thus he was raised by his virtuous mother. After
receiving some learning, she had him enter the Monas-
tery of St. Thomas in Seleucia while he was still very
young, motivated by piety and true faith. At the monas-
tery he was trained in the monastic life and studied
religious and logical sciences. The magnanimous and
commendable character as well as the beautiful virtues
he showed after assuming the monastic habit and after
his consecration as a priest, turned attention to him;
and as a result, he was chosen to head his brethren the
monks. Despite the afflictions which befell the monas-
tery because of the tyranny of Justin I in 521, he admin-
istered the monastery with utmost patience and wis-
dom. Later, he moved with his monks to the Jazira on
the left bank of the Euphrates opposite Europas
(Jarabulus) , where he founded in 530 a monastery on
the site known as the Monastery of Qinnesrin (The
Eagles’ Nest) or the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya. This
monastery became a very famous institution for monas-
ticism and for the sciences of philology, philosophy and
theology. From it graduated the most illustrious Syrian
scholars. In the year 533-534, Bar Aphtonya journeyed
to Constantinople, where he served as a secretary to an
ecclesiastical council held in that city. He died at his
monastery on the 8th of November, 538, at the age of
fifty-five. He is commemorated by the Church.

Anbajohn was well-versed in Syriac and in Greek. In
Greek he wrote a commentary on the book Song of
Songs 222 and a treatise on the doctrine which the Ortho-
dox submitted to the Emperorjustinian. He also com-
posed five eloquent manilhs on the miracles of Christ
the Lord; a hymn on the mystical Washing of the Feet;

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

a hymn on the Himyarite martyrs; nine hymns on the
Nativity of Our Lord and on the Resurrection; three
hymns eulogizing Severus of Antioch and a hymn for
burying the dead. He is also thought to have composed
three antiphons for the reception of the Holy Eucha-
rist. 225 His writings were translated into Syriac. To him
was also ascribed the lengthy biography of Severus
which, in fact, does not belong to him.

49. Simon of Beth Arsham 224 (d. 540)

One of the most eminent church dignitaries who
fought for the Orthodox faith, his fame spread at the
beginning of the sixth century. His life story was written
byjohn of Ephesus, who conversed with him for a long
time and had this to say about him: 225

“He (Simon) was a priestwell-versed in the science of
religion and a habitual reader. He was also a zealous,
fluent and keen disputant, who devoted his life to
support the Orthodox truth. He opposed theNestorians
and refuted them by his proofs. Also, he disputed with
the Manicheans, the Marcionists and the Daysanites in
Persia and the Eutychians. In fact, he was called ‘The
Persian Disputant.’ He preached Christianity in Hirat
al-Numan, where many Arabs responded to his call, and
a church was built by their notables. He also converted
to Christianity three chiefs of the Magians and baptized
them, but they were martyred. He journeyed to the land
beyond Persia and brought the faith to heathens and
Magians. For his efforts, the bishops of the East re-
warded him by investing him shordy before 503 with the
episcopate of the town of Beth Arsham situated on the
Tigris near Seleucia. He fought the good fight for the
cause of religion and in support of the Orthodox
believers, but was detained in Nisibin for seven years, an
adversity which he endured with padence. After his
release, he journeyed for seven more years to many
countries and visited Constantinople three dmes. He
was chosen by the Emperor Anastasius to be a delegate
to the Persian King, to discuss with him the removal of
affliction from the believers. The purpose of his third
journey to Constantinople was to see the Empress
Theodora, but he died, an old man, at the capital
around 540.”

Mar Simon wrote many books and treatises in refuta-
tion of heretics. He also wrote many letters on the Faith,
addressed to the believers in all countries. Of these we
have two lengthy and magnificent letters. In the first
one, he incorporated the detailed conditions of
Barsouma of Nisibin and the rise of the heresy of
Nestorius and its spread into Persia and tire closing
down of the School of Edessa. Written in 5 1 1 , this letter
is considered the oldest document about these two
events. In the second letter, addressed to Simon, abbot
of the Gabbul monastery in 524, he related that he had
accompanied the envoy of Emperor Justin I to al-
Mundhir, King of the Lakhmid Arabs of al-Hira. 226 He
and the envoy met the King at Ramlah. They learned

from him that he had received a letter from Masruq, the
Jewish King of the Himyarites, stating in detail the
torture which he inflicted upon the Christians ofNajran,
capital of al-Yaman and his slaughter of them. Upon his
return to al-Hira, Simon learned the details of the
martyrdom of the nobles of Najran, the chief and
noblest of whom was al-Harith ibn Kab. Simon urged
the bishop to contact the emperor in order to lift the
affliction from the Christians in al-Yaman and Tiberias.
This letter was quoted by the historians Zachariah,
Dionysius and Michael the Great. 227 Simon also com-
posed a liturgy which has been ascribed by some scribes
to Philoxenus.

50. The Translators of the Canons and Laws of Kings

Th e Emperors Constan tin e an d Theodosius the Great

and Leo I issued canons and laws which some Syrian
scholars translated into their language, deriving from
them commands used in the civil code of the church.
We do not know exactly in what age the translation of
these laws was made. However, Wright thinks that this
translation was made in the first half of the sixth cen-
tury, while Bruns holds that it was made by a monk from
Mabug around 475 or 477.

These canons have already been published in two
copies. 228 We have also found in the code of Basibrina,
the laws enacted by the Christian kings for the purchase
of lands and slaves, for the regulation of dowries, for the
division of inheritance among brothers and for wills of
the deceased. These laws cover thirteen large pages
which, we think, were probably translated in this same
century. 229

51. Samuel of Ras Ayn

Samuel was a layman who lived at Constantinople in
the first half of the sixth century. According to Bar
Hebraeus, he knew all the Greek sciences. He wrote a
sixty-four page treatise against the Dyophysites (a sect of
the Syrian church) , who believe in two natures in Christ
(still distinct after the Incarnation). 250

52. The Count Oecumenius

Living in the first half of the sixth century, this noble
man was a strong adherent of Orthodoxy, as is testified
by the four letters which Mar Severus wrote to him. He
wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John in six
sections. 251

53. Thomas, bishop of Germanicia (D. 542)

Thomas was ordained a bishop of Marash

(Germanicia) at the beginning of the sixth century. In
519 he was banished from his See because of his belief
in one nature of Christ. After 520, he wrote, by order of
the Patriarch Severus, a letter to the priests Paul and
Elijah, heads of the ascetics on the mountain ofMardin,
and another letter to the priest John, abbot of the
Monastery of Eusebius in Kafr Barta near Apamea. 252

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

After spending twenty-three years in exile, he died at
Samosata and was buried in the monastery of Oinnesrin
in 542.

54. Zachariah Rhetor

Zachariah, better known as “Rhetor” or “Scholasticus,”
was a school mate and a close friend of St. Severus. He
was born at Gazza and studied with Severus the sciences
of grammar and rhetoric at the School of Alexandria
between 485-487, and then jurisprudence and philoso-
phy at the famous law school of Beirut. Around 5 16 he
began writing his (Severus’) biography from his birth to
his elevation to the See of Antioch. Possessing an elo-
quent and thorough style, he made the introduction of
this biography a form of dialogue in which he refuted
the accusations of his (Severus’) opponents. This biog-
raphy was translated into Syriac as well as French and
was published by Kugener. It is full of useful informa-
tion. For a time, he (Zachariah) practised law in
Constantinople and after 527 he became the bishop of
the island of Mitylene also known as Lesbos, (Midylene)
whose name was distorted by some scribes from Mitylene
to Milytene and even Melitene (Malatia) ; thus, Zachariah
was erroneously attributed to Melitene.

From his noble pen we have a detailed profane
history as well as an ecclesiastical history from 450 to
49 1 , which he wrote in Greek at the request of Eupraxius,
a member of the Court. It comprises four books, con-
taining the events of the Church and the Henoticon of
Zeno. Book one consists of thirteen chapters, part two,
of twelve chapters; part three, of twelve chapters; and
part four, of seven chapters - all of which cover one
hundred and ten pages (slightly abridged by the Syrian
translator) . Its style is pleasant and smooth. This history,
whose original Greek form was lost, was incorporated by
a historian into his collection, which shall be referred to
later. 233 Beside this history, Zachariah also wrote the
biographies of Isaiah the Ascetic, Peter, bishop of
Mayuma, and Theodore, bishop of Ausana. The latter
biography has been lost He died after the year 556.

Duval and Kugener hold that the author of this
history is Zachariah Rhetor and that the biographer of
Severus is Zachariah the lawyer, bishop of Mitylene. The
old Greek writers, however, have confused these two
persons, and the Orientalists are not in agreement
regarding this problem.

55. Daniel of Salh (542 A.D.)

Daniel of Salh was known to have lived in the firsthalf
of the sixth century. Some contemporary writers, how-
ever, thought erroneously that he was born at Salh, a
village in Tur Abdin. 234 There was more than one town
of the name of Salh, one of which was al-Salhiyya in the
south of the upper Jazira, which dates back to Roman
times and whose ruins could be seen near the village of
Abu Kamal. Archaeological discoveries are being found
in it today.

At the beginning of his career, Daniel was an abbot
of the Monastery of Salhin to which his generic name,
i.e., Salh is more correctly attributed. It was during that
period that he wrote a letter to the monks of the
Monastery of Mar Basus in which he mentioned twelve
kinds of what was called “corruption,” as a result of the
disputation which flared up at that time. 235 According to
the Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl and the monk David of
Hims and others, he was ordained a bishop of Tall
Mawzalt shortly after the year 542. It is even mentioned
in his commentary on the Psalms that he is a native of
the city of Talla.

Daniel was one of the best church dignitaries of his
time in learning and in knowledge of the Holy Bible.
Before he became bishop in 542, he wrote a detailed
commentary on the Psalms in three volumes, each one
containing fifty psalms, in answer to the request of the
monk-priest John, abbot of the Monastery of Eusebius
at Kafr Barta near Apamea. His commentary is purely
spiritualistic and theological and he seldom quotes the
Fathers of the Church. His style is smooth and powerful.
There was a complete copy of his commentary in Hbab
which has been lost; two intact copies are in each of our
patriarchate libraries and in Constantinople. 236 Three
more copies are at the British Museum, containing the
first and the second volumes of this commentary and
another imperfect copy is in Beirut, containing most of
the first volume. 237 This commentary was abridged by
David of Hims in 1461, notin the tenth century, asj. B.
Chabot erroneously supposed. Of this abridgement
there are copies at Bartulli, the Zafaran’s monastery, St
Matthew’s monastery, Boston, Cambridge, Mass., and
Birmingham. 238 The lengthy form of this commentary
was translated into imperfect Arabic in the middle of
the eighteenth century. 239 Daniel also wrote a commen-
tary on the book of the Ecclesiastes. This commentary
was quoted by the monk Severus in his collection. We
read one verse of this commentary in the Book of the
Didascalia. He also wrote treatises on the plagues in-
flicted by God on the Egyptians. I have no idea of the
year of his death.

56. The Writer of the History of the Himyarite
Martyrs

An anonymous Syrian historian (most likely in the
middle of the sixth century) wrote in solid Syriac style
the chronicles of the Orthodox Himyarite Arab martyrs
ofNajran (520-524). In his book he included the names
of 472 male and female valiant martyrs who suffered
under Masruq, the tyrantjewish King. This chronicle is
considered unique and interesting, for it contains the
history of Christianity among the Arabs. It seems that
copies of this chronicle were so rare that no later
historian knew of it until it chanced to reach the hand
of Axel Moberg a Swedish scholar. He found a copy of
it by accident, for its pages were glued and used as a
cover of another book. In recognizing the chronicle, he

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

was able to salvage about sixty pages (about half of the
book). These salvaged pages also contain an index of
the forty-nine chapters of the chronicle transcribed by
the priest Stephen the son of Matta the Syrian, who
finished it at the church of St. Thomas in al-Qaryatayn 240
on April 10, 932. 241 He translated it in to English and had
it published in 1924, thus rendering a commendable
favor to our Syriac literature.

57. John II, abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin
(544)

The Anbajohn II succeeded Father Alexanderous as
abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin. He was a man of
letters, well-versed in Greek and Syriac. In 544, he wrote
a detailed biography of Severus of Antioch in Greek in
fifty-seven pages, thus immortalizing his name. This
biography was translated into Syriac shortly after it was
written down.

58. The Anonymous Writer of the Monastery of
Qinnesrin

One of the first literary fruits of the Monastery of
Qinnesrin was an eloquent Syriac eulogy delivered by
one of the monks in the fifth decade of the sixth
century, in behalf ofjohn bar Aphtonya, the abbot and
founder of the Monastery of Qinnesrin. In this eulogy,
the monk incorporated the life and good deeds of Bar
Aphtonya in a vivacious and pleasant style. It was pub-
lished by Nau in 1902, and translated into Arabic and
published by this author . 24Z

59. The Monk Elijah (Iliyya)

The monk-priest Elijah was a companion ofjohn bar
Cursus, bishop of Tall Mawzalt (519-538). After the
death of this confessor, Elijah wrote a detailed biogra-
phy of bar Cursus at the request of two noblemen,
Sergius and Paul. This biography was published by
Brooks. 243

60. Moses of Agel (550)

The monk Moses of Agel derived his generic name
from the town of Agel north of Diyarbakr. He became
known around 525. He was another of the distinguished
scholars in the knowledge of Greek and Syriac. He
made a Syriac version of the book of Cyril of Alexandria
entitled Glaphyra (Mysteries), at the request of the
monk Paphnotius. Moses’ answer and portions of the
book Glaphyra have reached us. 244 He also translated
into Syriac the apocryphal story ofjoseph the Righteous
and his wife Asyath or Asnith, a piece of sheer elo-
quence. 245 He is thought to have lived until the year
550. 24fi

61. The Syrian Monk Thought to be the Writer of the
History Ascribed to Zachariah

This monk was an Orthodox writer who was still
living in 569. He compiled in Syriac a significan t histori-

cal collection in twelve books, comprising two volumes
and covering 462 pages. 247 This collection contains the
stories ofjoseph the Righteous, his wife, the sleeping
youths of Ephesus (Ahl al-Kahf) , Sylvester, the Pope of
Rome, and his conversion of Caesar Constantine to
Christianity. It also contains the entire history of
Zachariah Rhetor, formerly mentioned, the revelation
of the repository of the bones of the proto-martyr,
Nicodemus, Gamaliel and his son Habib and the
chronicles of the Himyarite martyrs. Also included are
the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, the Byzantine-
Persian Wars, the insurrection of the Isaurians, the
heresy ofjulian the phantasiast (Julian ofHalicamassus)
and the letter which he exchanged with Severus of
Antioch. Also in the collection are an account of the
insurrection of the inhabitants of Constantinople, the
invitation of the Orthodox bishops to the capital in the
hope of achieving unity, the letter of Severus to the
emperor, the conquest of Ifriqiyya (Africa), the captiv-
ity of Rome and the coming of Agapetus to
Constantinople. Besides these, we find the letter of
Severus to the priests and monks of the East; the journey
of Ephraim of Amid to the East and his persecution of
its citizens as well as their persecution by Ibrahim,
metropolitan of Amid; the church which Ephraim built
in Antioch and his journey to Palestine and Egypt; the
letter of Rabula of Edessa to Gemellinus of Perrhe; the
destruction of Rome by the barbarians and the descrip-
tion of the buildings of Rome; the delineation of the
habitable world by Ptolemy; the spread of Christianity
beyond the Caspian Sea; the introduction of writing
into the language of the Huns, etc., and the texts of the
letters exchanged between the Patriarchs Severus,
Theodosiusand An thimus. 248 This anonymous author is
perhaps the same one who translated the history of
Zachariah into Syriac. This book was published by Land
and then translated into Latin by Brooks and published
in two volumes between 1919 and 1921.

62. Mar Ahudemeh (d. 575)

Ahudemeh is the pride of the Church of the East and
one of its noblest dignitaries because of his intelligence,
knowledge, piety, and support of Orthodoxy. Bom at
Balad, 249 he was consecrated a bishop for the diocese of
Baarbaya, situated between Nisibin and Sinjar. In 559,
he was elevated by Marjacob Baradaeus to the office of
the Metropolitan of the lands of the East, and set to work
briskly in calling the nomad Arabs who dwelt in that
region and in the abodes of Rabia to Christianity. He
converted a great number of them to Christianity and
built two monasteries and some churches for them. He
was also honored by God by miracles to support his
preaching even to the Magians. Among these Magians
was a prince from the royal family, whose conversion
angered the King Khosrau I Anushirwan; he impris-
oned this saint, who finally received martyrdom on the
Second of August, 575. His body was carried to Qronta

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

opposite to Takrit. He was counted as the first Metro-
politan of the Sea of the East after it had been usurped
by the Nestorians. 250

Mar Ahudemeh was a philosopher and a theologian.
He wrote a book of definitions on logical matters and
treatises on religious free will, on the soul, on man as a
microcosm and on man as consisting of soul and body.
This latter treatise was published together with his
lengthy biography. 251 He is also mentioned by later
authorities as a writer of grammar based on the Greek
method.

63. Sergius, the Ascetic Monk (577)

Sergius the monk was a recluse in a monastery of
Nicaea and a disciple of the priest John of Ras Ayn a
distinguished aged ascetic. He received a satisfactory
background in the study of theology and ecclesiastical
history. Around the year 577, he supported the case of
Paul II, patriarch of Antioch, by writing a seventy-four
page Syriac treatise of nine chapters in which he refuted
the allegations of his opponent John the Lame, 252 who
had left the Monastery of Basus. He also reproduced in
this treatise the article of his opponent, who was oppos-
ing the previously mentioned patriarch after he had
been dethroned by the Syrian Church. 253

64. Mar Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578)

One of the most famous Church Fathers for his
godliness and piety, the greatest Apostolic fighter in
support of the true faith, he attained the summit of
religious and austere asceticism. He was born at Tall
Mawzalt, the son of a priest named Theophilus bar
Manu. While still young he became a monk at the
Monastery of Fsilta in the neighborhood of his home-
land. At this monastery he mastered the Syriac and
Greek languages and penetrated deeply into religious
books and theological science as well as asceticism. In
528, he journeyed to Constantinople, where he was
consecrated a metropolitan for Edessa, the country of
al-Sham and Asia, by the laying of the hands of
Theodosius, patriarch of Alexandria in 543 (or as has
also been related, in 544) , at the request of the Arab
king al-Harith ibnjabalah al-Ghassani and the Empress
Theodora. Then he went to Alexandria and with the
assistance of some of the bishops, ordained two bishops.
From Alexandria, he traveled incognito into Syria, Ar-
menia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphilia, Lycaonia,
Lycia, Phrygia, Cana, Asia Minor and the islands of
Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios and Mitylene, and also into
Mesopotamia, Persia and Alexandria, instructing and
encouraging the Orthodox believers. Authorized by
the patriarch, he consecrated twenty-seven bishops and
ordained a few thousand deacons and priests, not for-
getting to return quite a few times to his monastery. He
continued this work for thirty-five years, indefatigably
fighting the good fight for the Church of God, which he
supported in the time of adversity until he died at the

Monastery of Romanus or the Monastery of Cassian on
July 30, 578 and was commemorated by the Church. 254

Jacob drew up a liturgy in fifteen pages beginning
with “O Lord, the most holy Father of peace,” and
several letters, four of which were published in the
Syriac Documents 255 - three addressed tojohn ofEphesus
and others, 256 and a general letter to the bishops and
priests which is mentioned in his lengthy biography.

65. Cyriacus of Talla

From the pen of Cyriacus, metropolitan of Talla, we
have compact and graceful supplications alphabetically
arranged in no more than two, three or four lines.
These supplications were recited between the marmiths,
i.e. a number of psalms which the Syrians divide into
fifteen marmiths. These marmiths, which cover three
pages, are found in the British Museum MS. 14525,
transcribed in the tenth century. 257 In the same method
he also wrote other supplications to be recited between
the marmiths at the festivals of the Nativity of Our Lord,
Epiphany, Lent, Palm Sunday, the Resurrection - actu-
ally at any time. Some of these marmiths survive in three
pages of a second manuscript, although because of the
age of the manuscript, these marmiths are quite want-
ing. 258 One of these marmiths is recited privately by the
priest at the beginning of the celebration of the Holy
Eucharist. It begins thus, “Make us worthy O Lord God
to appear before thy holy altar with knowledge, awe and
good order.” We also found two supplications in some
choral books, one for the morning prayer and the other
for the dead. Their composition resembles the style of
Cyriacus and his eloquence. 259 We have forgotten to put
this author along with the authors of church services
where he belongs. However, judging from the nature of
his composition, he must have lived in the second half
of the sixth century. He may have succeeded Daniel of
Salh to the See of Talla, either as the predecessor or the
successor of Metropolitan John III, who died on the 5 th
of May, 591.

66. Sergius bar Karya (the Short) (580).

Sergius bar Karya (the Short) is known as the aqran
(“he of the joined eyebrows”). He studied sciences at
the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya where he became a
monk, then a priest and finally an abbot.

In 544, or 545, he was consecrated a bishop of Harran
by Mar Jacob (Baradaeus). Beside his knowledge of
Greek and logic, he possessed an elegant Syriac style
and was considered one of the proficient writers of his
time. While an abbot, he translated into Syriac the
Greek biography ofSeverus of Antioch by his predeces-
sor John of Talla. This biography, which covers fifty-
seven pages, was translated into French and published
by Kugener. Bar Karya also wrote a treatise on the Holy
Chrism 260 and issued ten canons regarding excommuni-
cated clergy. 261 He was still living in the year 580, but
died shortly after. 262

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

67. Paul II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 581 )

Paul was a native of Alexandria of a Coptic origin
from the family of Ukama. He became a monk at the
Outer Monastery of al-Jubb (Gubba Baraya) and was
educated in the literatures of both the Greek and the
Syriac languages. He was trained in the path of worship
and later became a secretary to the Patriarch Theodosius.
Also, he became the abbot of a convent at Alexandria.
About 550, he was consecrated a patriarch of Antioch,
but was deposed around 575 for his participation with
the Malkites (the king’s party) in the hope of achieving
unity between them and Antioch. But when he was
disappointed in his hope, he returned to his former life.
His death is thought to have occurred in the year 581.

Paul wrote two Synodical letters to Theodosius and
Theodore, patriarchs of Alexandria; 265 a letter to the
Metropolitansjacob and Theodoras; 254 a letter tojohn,
abbot of the Monastery of bar Aphtonya in November,
576, which had been mentioned by Sergius, the ascetic
monk 285 and a letter to Mar Jacob. 266 He also wrote a
treatise containing the disputation between him and
John of Sermin during his detention at the Monastery
of Ibrahim, 267 which might have been the protest men-
tioned by the monk Sergius.

68. The Priest Cyrus of Batnan (582 )

The priest Cyrus of Batnan near Saruj wrote at
Edessa, a profane and an ecclesiastical history in four-
teen treatises. These cover the events which took place
during the rule of the Emperors Justin II and Tiberius
until the year of the author’s death, that is, from 565 to
582 A.D. This history was mentioned by Dionysius of
Tall Mahre in the introduction to his history, which in
turn was quoted by Michael the Great. Michael admit-
ted that he had copied from Cyrus’ history some events
which agree with reality. 266 He also mentioned the
writer, whose historywas lost, and indicated thathe died
around that time (i.e., 582) . We know no more than this
about his affairs.

69. John of Ephesus (d. 587)

One of the famous dignitaries of his time and the
author of interesting historical writings, he was an
indefatigable and industrious man, and above all, a
propagandist and active missionary of Christianity. 269

John was most likely born at Agel in the province of
Amid around theyear507. Hecameclose to death when
he was two years old , but was healed by the prayer of Mar
Maran, the sty lite ascetic in theMonastery ofAra Rabtha
(The Great Land) at Agel. When he was four years old,
his family sent him to Marun’s monastery in compliance
with the ascetic’s order. He remained at the monastery
until he became fifteen years old. At this time, the
ascetic (Marun) died, andjohn joined the monks at the
Monastery ofjohn the Iberian north of Amid, which was
founded at the end of the fourth century. This monas-
tery gained popularity and was comprised of many

monks. At this monastery, John studied the Holy Scrip-
tures, practiced the spiritual life and learned the two
languages popular at that time. In 529, he was ordained
a deacon by John, metropolitan of Talla, and then
became a monk. When the monks were peresecuted
and dispersed, he departed with them, but in 530 they
were allowed to return to their monastery. John, how-
ever, wentabout visiting the monasteries and the monks’
cells, conversing with the most virtuous ascetics, learn-
ing from them and recording their chronicles. In 532,
he journeyed to Antioch, then in 534, to Egypt and to
Constantinople in 535. In the following years he shared
the fate of monks who were severely persecuted and
tortured by Ephraim of Amid and the tyrant Abraham
bar Kili. In 540 and 541, he traveled to Constantinople
and Mesopotamia and then returned to the capital. In
542, he was chosen by Justinian, who had great confi-
dence in him because of his zeal and ambition, to
preach to the heathens in Asia Minor, Caria, Phrygia
and Lydia and call them to Christianity. 270 Around the
year 558, he was ordained by Jacob Baradaeus - as a
metropolitan of the Orthodox community in Ephesus,
from which he took his generic name. He took another
generic name from Asia Minor. For nearly twenty-nine
years he carried out his mission and achieved great
success by converting eighty thousand heathens to Chris-
tianity and founded, according to one narrative, ninety-
two churches and ten monasteries, and according to
another one, ninety-nine churches and twelve monas-
teries. 271 In these efforts, he was assisted by Deutrius,
whom he ordained a bishop of Caria. After the death of
Theodosius in 566,John became the head of the Ortho-
dox community at Constantinople and the rest of the
Byzantine country. 272 However, in 57l .Justin II as well as
the Malkite bishops of the capital severely tortured the
Orthodox citizenry, among whom was John. He was
detained in an exhausting prison and then banished to
an island for forty months and nine days. He was also
placed under surveillance for more than three years. 275
He was arrested for a second time, released and then
arrested for a third time under Tiberius. He was ban-
ished from the capital with his companions on Christ-
mas Day of 578. 274 He died around 586 or 587, and was
styled as “The Converter ofHeathens,” the “Idol Breaker”
and the “Ecclesiastical Historian.”

Mar John wrote an ecclesiastical history in three
parts, each comprising six books. The first and the
second parts begin from the time ofjulius Caesar and
extend until 571 A.D.; the third part contains the
chronicles of the church from 571 to 585, in 418 pages.
The first part has been lost; the second was entirely
incorporated into the history written by the monk of
Zuqnin in 775, of which portions have been separately
published. The third part, which he wrote while at the
prison of Chalcedon, has come down to us with several
chapters missing. This part has a unique copy tran-
scribed in the seventh century. 275 It was first published

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

by Cureton in 1853 and then translated into English by
Payne Smith in 1860, and into German by Schonfelder
in 1862. It was republished by Brooks and also trans-
lated into Latin. The author, however, admitted that
this part is mis-arranged because he wrote it in a time of
adversity and suffering. He intended if circumstances
changed for the better to re-organize it. The signifi-
cance of his history stems from the fact that it contained
events not found in any other history. These events
relate to the Ghassanid Kings, the countries of the Slavs
and the Armenians, the Christianization of the land of
the Nuba as well as some of the Ethiopian tribes and the
farm provinces of Asia Minor. It also contains an ac-
count of the pestilences which swept over most of the
countries of that time. As an historian, John was a
truthful and diligent investigator who judged the facts
from the Orthodox point of view, but with impartiality.
He is to blame only for his awkward and involved style,
which also abounds with unnecessary Greek phrases.

Between 566 and 568, John wrote another history, no
less momentous and useful than the first one, in which
he incorporated the biographies of the Eastern saints.
This history is of two parts, comprising six hundred and
nineteen pages and containing fifty-eight biographies
of church dignitaries, ascetics, monks and pious men -
most of whom were his contemporaries. In this history
he followed the method of the histories of Palladius and
Theodoret, butsurpassed them in providing exactdates.
He also added an interesting chapter on the history
from 389 to 567, of the Monastery of Mar John the
Iberian, from which he graduated. Beside the biogra-
phies of some church dignitaries, he incorporates much
useful information about monastic life and customs
and the administration of monasteries at that time. One
of the merits of this history is that the author did not
write down anything except what he witnessed, heard
and verified or what was related to him by authorities
with no redundancy or superfluity. Furthermore, his
style is much better than that of his predecessors.
Following is the table of these biographies:

1) The biography of Mar Habib; 2) the biography of
Mar Zura; 3) the biography ofjohn the Nazirite of the
Monastery of Zuqnin; 4) the biography of the two stylite
brothers Ibrahim and Marun; 5) the biography of the
two ascetics Simon and Sergius; 6) the biography of the
Solitary Paul; 7) the biography of Abraham, the lay
recluse; 8) the biography of Addai the Chorepiscopus
of Anazete; 9) the history of the cleric Mara of Anazete;
10) the history of the Bishop Simon, the Persian dialec-
tician; 11) the history of Harphat, Chorepiscopus of
Anazete; 12) the history of the two sisters Mary and
Euphemia, daughters of Ghazala(Dorcus); 13) the his-
tory of Thomas, Stephen, and Zota, the notaries and
syncelli of Mara, metropolitan of Amid; 14) the history
of Abi the Nazirite; 15) history of the two brothers, one
of whom was named Jacob from the Edessene monas-
tery at Amid; 16) the history of Simon, the solitary of the

Tur; 17) the history of a man who was not willing to have
his name mentioned; 18) the history of a monk who
quitted his monastery without being absolved; 19) the
history of Zachariah the Aged; 20) the history of a monk
from the Monastery of Zachariah; 21) the history of
Thomas of Armenia who became an ascetic monastic
with his wife and children; 22) the history of the two
brothers, Addai and Abraham; 23) the history of Simon
the solitary; 24) the history of John, bishop of Tall
Mawzalt (Constantina); 25) the history ofjohn ofGazza,
Coptic Bishop of Hephaestus, the second contender for
the Orthodox faith; 26; the history of Thomas the
Confessor, bishop of Damascus (the origin is wanting);
27) the history of Susanna the virgin; 28) the history of
Mary the solitary; 29) the history of Malke the stranger
ascetic; 30) the history of Elias in the city of Dara; 31) the
history of the two merchant brothers, Elias and
Theodore; 32) the history of a monk who stole and
afterwards repented; 33) the history of Hala the Zeal-
ous, of the monastery of the Edessenes in Amid; 34) the
history of the scribe Simon the Aged of Amid; 35) the
history of the monkswhowere persecuted and expelled
from the monasteries of Amid from 521 to 567; 36) the
history of Mara the solitary and all the ascetics who were
buried at the cemetery of the strangers; 37) (wanting in
the original); 38) the history of the priest Aaron and the
rest of the priests and deacons; 39) the history of the
priest Leontis; 40) the history of the priests Abraham
and his son Zota and the history of his nephew deacon
Daniel; 41 ) the history of Basianus the solitary, Romanus
the priest and Periodeutes of the Monastery of Talada
and of the abbot Simon; 42) the history of the abbots
Mari, Sergius, and Daniel; 43) the history of the deacons
Abraham, Cyriacus, Bar Hadhbshabba and Sergius,
who assisted the author in preaching to the heathens
and in building churches and monasteries; 44) the
history of a pious Tribunus and Count, 45) the history of
Isaac the prefect of Dara; 46) the history of Paul of
Antioch; 47) the history of the group of monks as-
sembled by the Empress Theodora at the palace of
Hormizda in Constantinople; 48) the history of the five
exiled patriarchs during the persecution; 49) the his-
tory of Mar Jacob, a militant metropolitan; 50) the
history of the two militant Metropolitans Jacob and
Theodore; 51) the history of Kashish, bishop of the
island of Chios; 52) the history of the ascetics Theophilus
and Maria of Antioch; 53) the history of Priscos the
Ascetic; 54) the history of the ascetic patrician lady
Caesaria; 55) the history ofjohn and Susiana, chamber-
lains of the patrician lady Caesaria; 56) the history of
Peter the imperial chancellor and his brother Photius
the Chastularius; 276 57) the history of Theodore, the
imperial chamberlain and quaestor; 58) the history of
the monastery ofjohn the Iberian in twenty-one pages.

These histories of saints have a unique Estrangelo
copy at the British MuseumMS. Add. 14647 transcribed
in 688 277 which was published by Land in 1 868, who also

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

in collaboration with Van Douwen published it in Latin
in Amsterdam in 1889. It was also published in English
by Brooks in 1924.

John also wrote another book on the persecution
provoked by the Malkites against the church in 537,
which he mentioned in his Ecclesiastical History and in
the beginning of the thirty-fifth biography. This book
has been lost. He also wrote the story of the pestilence
around the year 541-542 and incorporated it into the
first book of his history, which is lost except for what was
quoted by Michael the Great However, the protest
which he delivered to the Eastern Council concerning
unity in 57l 27B is thought to have taken place before the
year 575. He also wrote sundry letters to categories of
the faithful whom he mentioned in his history, 279 into
which he incorporated the adversity which had befallen
him. Furthermore, he wrote more than ten letters to
Marjacob 280 and to the Patriarch Paul and his partisans
after his disagreement with them; 281 he also composed
a reply to the abbots of the monasteries of the East
regarding the ordination of Peter III of Callinicus
around the year 581 , 282

70. Peter III of al-Raqqa (Callinicus) (d. 591 )

Peter was born at al-Raqqa (Callinicus). His father
Paul was a believing and truthful orator. Peter was
raised in the best fashion, mastering Greek and Syriac
and obtaining a fair knowledge of philosophy and
theology. Because of his erudition and excellent char-
acter, he was chosen a patriarch of Antioch and was
consecrated at the Monastery of Mar Hanania in the
year 581. Then he traveled to Alexandria and the Arab
province of Hawran to promote the religious ties be-
tween the two Sees of Antioch and Alexandria. He
became popular for his dialogue with Damianus the
Syrian, patriarch of Alexandria, who was confused in
the exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity while
attempting to refute the heresy of Tritheism, not be-
cause of adherence to heresy, but because of his short-
sightedness in knowledge. When he refused to obey the
counsel of Peter and attempted, obstinately, to evade
discussion or defense of the matter, Peter refuted him
in a book which he wrote in Greek, comprising four
treatises in one hundred chapters and supported with
testimonies from the authorities of the church. Accord-
ing to Mar Michael the Great this book contained three
treatises only. Judging from the Syriac MS. preserved in
London 285 which comprises twenty-five chapters, i.e.,
the second book (second treatise) , it is most likely that
the book was abridged in fifty chapters by some of the
writers who lived soon after his time. A copy of this book
at the Vatican contains the second volume or the last
book in fifty chapters covering four hundred pages. 284
Peter also wrote a short treatise against the Tritheists,
which is perhaps a part of his above mentioned lengthy
book, and a treatise against the doctrine of the abbot
John of Barbour as well as against Probus, in which he

established that the difference of the definition be-
tween the two natures of Christ after the unity is main-
tained. He also wrote letters, ofwhich two were abridged
and incorporated by Michael the Great in his Chronicle,
and a liturgy beginning thus, “O God the Father and the
eternal Almighty.” He died at the Outer Monastery of
Gubba on the 22nd of April, 591, or perhaps 590.

71. Julian the Second (d. 595)

Julian entered the monastic order at the Monastery
of Qmnesrin, from which he was also graduated after
acquiring the knowledge of logic. He was a virtuous
ascetic, a disciple and secretary of Peter III, patriarch of
Antioch. He was chosen the successor of Peter III and
was consecrated a patriarch of Antioch in 591 and
administered the Church of God four years and two
months. He died on the ninth ofjuly, 595. According to
Bar Hebraeus, who quoted old historians, Julian wrote
a commentary on the above-mentioned work of his
predecessor, explaining its problems and dispelling the
misgivings of Sergius the Armenian, metropolitan of
Edessa, and his brother John, regarding it. In our
Jerusalem library you will find a sixteen-page booklet of
his commentary which is deficient at the beginning and
the end. 285

72. Abraham of Amid (d. 598)

Abraham of Amid was a man of letters, well-versed in
Greek and Syriac. In 598 he translated the liturgy of
Severus, bishop of Samosata according to a marginal
note on the Book of Liturgies which we read at the
Monastery of Mar Lazarus near Habsnas in Tur Abdin.

73. John Psaltes (d. 600)

Anbajohn Psaltes “The Chan ter, ”abbotofQinnesrin
at the close of the sixth century, is the third of this name
among the abbots of this monastery. Nicknamed “The
Calligrapher,” John was an adroit man of letters. He
studied sciences at his monastery where he became a
monk and was ordained a priest. He was known for his
piety. His death is thought to have occurred around the
year 600. According to the calendar of his monastery, he
was commemorated on the thirteenth ofjanuary of the
same year. He composed eloquent maniths, in one of
which he made known the traits ofjohn bar Aphtonya.
In another two maniths he praised the patriarchs Peter
III and Julian II. 288

74. Rufina the Silver Merchant

Trained in logic, Rufina was an Orthodox layman
who was a silver merchant. He wrote a treatise in Greek,
refuting the allegation of Leontius (485-543), resident
of Jerusalem, and Byzantine by birth and death, who
leaned towards Nestorianism, but then returned to his
Malkite doctrine. Leontius was a bitter opponent of the
Syrians, and attacked the writings ofSeverus of Antioch.
Rufina, in his treatise which comprises seventeen chap-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

ters in sixty-nine pages, reproduced the verbatim text of
the opponent and refuted it, while defending the recti-
tude of the Orthodox faith. He titled his treatise “The
Destruction of the Spider’s Web Woven by Leontius of
Jerusalem.” Of this treatise we found a unique copy at
the Zafaran’s library written in a neat hand. 287 It seems
that Rufina lived in the middle of the sixth century and
that he was a contemporary of his opponent; more
probably, however, he lived until the end of the century.
His treatise was translated into Syriac in a refined style.
He may have been a native of Antioch from the family
of Rufina.

75. The Priest Simon

Simon was the nosocomus (administrator) of the
great hospital of Edessa. Of his writings are the com-
mentary on the third, sixth and eighth chapters of
Genesis, 288 a treatise on the return of the people, Jews,
of the captivity from Babylon and another treatise on
the weeks of the Prophet Daniel. 289 From the nature of
his writing we may infer that he lived either in the
middle or at the end of the sixth century.

76. Sergius the Stylite

Sergius is also thought to have lived at the end of the
sixth century. He was a stylite monk in the village of
Josya of the province of Hims. He wrote a treatise in
seventy-five pages addressed to a Jew in which he re-
futed his claim that “God had no son and that He had
not begotten a Son.” 290 He especially quoted Flavius
Josephus. This treatise is preserved in a unique MS. in
London British Museum, 291 in the handwriting of the
Abbot Romanus in the eighth century. It deserves great
consideration because it is the only surviving disputa-
tion between the Christians and thejews from ancient
times.

77. Paul, metropolitan of Talla (617)

Paul was one of the great scholars of his time, well-
versed in Syriac and Greek. Of his home and the
monastery from which he was graduated we are not
informed. He was ordained a bishop of Talla between
the years 61 0 and 615, as a successor of the Metropolitan
Samuel. It is most likely that he remained only a few
years in his diocese, for it was mentioned in the ancient
history written by a monk from Qartamin that “Daniel
the Uzi was ordained a bishop of Talla, Dara and Tur
Abdin in 615, 292 and that in 622, Zacchaeus was the
metropolitan of Talla.” 295 The maximum information
we know about this church dignitary is that he collabo-
rated with the Patriarch Athanasius I in achieving a
reconciliation with the church of Alexandria and that
he also signed the general proclamation in 616. Unfor-
tunately, time has not been fair to this scholar or to his
counterpart, Thomas of Harqal (Heraclea), in that no
account of their lives was ever written. However, time
has recorded the excellence of Paul for his translation

of the Septuagint into Syriac according to the most
correct versions of the hexaplar texts of Origen, a
momentous task. Paul undertook this translation by the
order and at the urging of the Patriarch Athanasius I
either at Alexandria or at the Monastery of St. Antony
near the Enaton (the ninth mile village) during his
flight to Egypt because of the Persian War of 615-617.
With great precision, he appended to the text the
additions and the differences marked by asterisks and
obeli and other signs, together with the marginal notes
connected with Greek texts other than the text of the
Septuagint. He was assisted in his work by many scribes,
most famous of whom was the deacon Thomas the
secretary of the patriarch. He completed the translation
of the four Books of Kings (two according to the familiar
version) on the 14th ofFebruary, 616, at a time when the
Syrian Church was in dire need for this exact translation
during the theological disputations. 294 It appears from
old manuscripts that this version was used in the church
service books.

Of this noble translation, there was a complete copy
at the Monastery of St. Matthew, mentioned by the
Nestorian Catholicos Timothy I at the beginning of the
ninth century. A similar copy was found in the middle of
the sixteenth century in the possession of the ancient
Orientalist Andreas Masius. Transcribed in the ninth
century, what may have been brought to Masius by the
Syrian metropolitan, Musa (Moses) al-Sawari, for publi-
cation. However, after the death of Andrew in 1573, the
first volume which contained the five books of Joshua,
Judges, Kings, Ezra, Nehemaia, Judith and Tobit, disap-
peared. The second volume survives at the library of
Milan/ 295 Itcon tains the books of Psalms, Job, Ecclesiastes
and the Books of Wisdom and the Prophets. Parts of this
translation also survive at the Bibliotheque Nationale at
Paris and the British Museum to which Baumstark
alluded in pp. 186-187, footnotes 12 and 13. 296

Between l787and 1892, some Orientalists published
the surviving Books of Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, the
Psalms, Kings IV, Isaiah, the Minor Prophets, Proverbs,
Job, the Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,
Judges, Ruth and parts of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers,
Joshua and Kings.

To Peter is also attributed the translation of the story
of the Adulterous Woman, contained by John 8:3-10,
preceded by verse 53 of chapter 7, 297 from a copy he
found at Alexandria. But those scholars who ascribe this
translation to Mara of Amid hold that the original copy
was the property of Mara. However, before undertaking
the translation of the Holy Bible, Paul made a new
translation of the order of Baptism by Severus of
Antioch 298 He also wrote an order of Baptism and a
liturgy. Most probably, Paul spent the rest of his life in
Egypt and was distinguished for being pious. The Church
commemorates him on the fifteenth ofFebruary. 299

78. The Deacon Tuma (Thomas) (617)

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Thomas was a deacon, a learned man and syncellus
(secretary) 500 of Athanasius I, patriarch of Antioch. He
was a man of learning, who assisted Paul of Talla in
translating the book of Daniel from the Greek into
Syriac as has been formerly mentioned. 501 He is prob-
ably the author of the chapter which contains the Syriac
names and diacritical points and who was mentioned by
Jacob of Edessa.

79. Paul, metropolitan of Edessa (619)

An established scholar, distinguished translator and
a man who acquired knowledge of the literatures (Greek
and Syriac) , Paul II was ordained metropolitan of Edessa
around 594 or 595 as a successor of Sergius. 502 He was
given the tide “The Translator of Books” because dur-
ing the Persian expedition against thejazira and Syria,
he took refuge on the island of Cyprus in 609, where in
619, he made a fairly free translation of hymns com-
posed by Severus of Antioch and others. This transla-
tion was later revised by Jacob of Edessa in 675. He also
translated the Gloria in Exclesis Deo according to the
traditions of Qinnesrin. In 61 6, 505 he was among the
bishops who accompanied Athanasius I to Egypt. His
commemoration day is fixed on the twenty-third of
August 504

80. Cyriacus, metropolitan of Amid (d. 623)

Cyriacus was a competent Doctor of the church,

popular for his virtues, learning and position. He be-
came a monk and studied at the Monastery of Zacchaeus
near al-Raqqa (Callinicus). Then he became the dis-
ciple of the Patriarch Peter III, who ordained him a
metropolitan of Amid around 582 or 583. He adminis-
tered his diocese wisely and during his long tenure,
contributed commendable services to the Church. In
609, he was replaced for political reasons by the metro-
politan Samuel but was later restored to his See and his
position was enhanced in the eyes of the people.

To him Athanasius I wrote a splendid letter on the
achievement of unity with the church of Alexandria in
which he praised his efforts. He made six canons and
wrote replies to thirteen questions submitted to him. 505
The book of Hudoye by Bar Hebraeus contains some of
his canons. He died in 623.

81. The Anba Paul (624)

Paul the Abbot was a proficient translator. In 609 he
took refuge in Cyprus, where he later translated the
theological works of Gregory the Theologian into Syriac
in 624. 506 These translations were revised by Athanasius
II of Balad. Some writers have confused him with Paul,
metropolitan of Edessa.

82. Tuma al-Harqali (Thomas of Heraclea) (627)

Thomas is one of the most distinguished and pro-
found learned men, a thorough and prolific writer who
attained the peak of the art of literature, and became

the master of both subject and form. He belongs to
Harqal, a village in Palestine. He studied at the Monas-
tery of Qinnesrin and mastered the Syriac and Greek
languages. He became a monk at the Monastery of Taril
and was ordained a metropolitan of Mabug 507 in the last
decade of the sixth century. He was persecuted by
Domitian, the Malkite bishop of Melitene, supported by
the authority of his brother-in-law King (Emperor)
Maurice, and escaped to Egypt in 599, but later re-
turned to his diocese. He went to Egypt for the second
time during the Persian expedition against Syria and
Palestine and resided at a monastery at the Enaton (or
Nine-Mile Village) in the neighborhood of Alexandria.
At this monastery, he undertook the revision of the
Syriac version of the New Testament of Philoxenus-
Polycarp which he collated with four accurate Greek
copies, thus producing in 616 A.D. a Biblical version
known as the Heraclean version, which overshadowed
other versions and whose quality has been unanimously
recognized by scholars.

Thomas exerted great efforts in order to produce
this Biblical version which immortalized his name. This
version spread through the libraries in the East and in
the West, 508 and was also used in the Church service. In
the Book of Psalms at the Oxford library, 509 we read a
note that these psalms were first translated in the time
of the Apostle Addai, translated again by Philoxenus of
Mabug, and later by Bishop Thomas of Harqal at Alex-
andria. Thomas also assisted Athanasius I in holding the
unity agreement with the Church of Alexandria, and
visited the Emperor Heraclius with him at Mabug in
627. He also drew up an alphabetically arranged liturgy
in ten pages beginning with “Eternal and compassion-
ate Lord,” and translated into Syriac the liturgies of
Dionysius the Areopagite, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen
and John Chrysostom. The year of his death is not
known, but the Church commemorates him on the
26th ofjune. 510

83. Athanasius I, Gammala (631 )

He was one of the best patriarchs of An tioch because
ofhiszeal, piety and goodjudgment. Natives of Samosata,
Athanasius and his brother Severus were brought up
after the death of their father by their pious and virtu-
ous mother. Later the two brothers became monks at
the Monastery of Qinnesrin. At the monastery,
Athanasius was known as the Gammala (camel driver),
because of his engagement to carry salt for one year on
camels from the salt mine at Gabbula to his monastery,
in compliance with its regulations. He was chosen a
patriarch for the See of St. Peter 511 which he adminis-
tered from 595 to 631 , or according to a less reliable
account, from 604 to 631. He died in the year 631.

Athanasius wrote three noble general letters: one
addressed to Cyriacus, metropolitan of Amid, describ-
ing the unity which he held with the See of Alexan-
dria, 512 the second letter was to the abbot and monks of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

St Matthew’s monastery and the third letter to the
Emperor Heraclius, in which he refuted the heresy of
John Grammaticus. 515 He also wrote a discourse con-
taining the biography of Severus (of Antioch) in which
he elaborated on his struggle. This biography, whose
original Syriac has been lost, survives in the Ethiopic
translation, which was rendered into English and pub-
lished by Goodspeed. 914 It was also mentioned by the
historians of the patriarchs of Alexandria.

84. Severus, bishop of Samosata (d. 630-643)

Severus is the brother of Patriarch Athanasius. He

entered the monastic order at the Monastery of
Qinnesrin where he studied and then became abbot.
He was ordained by his brother a bishop of Samosata
shortly before 598. He was very pious, spending his time
in worship and prayer. Because of his piety God favored
him with the gift of miracles. In 61 6, he accompanied
his brother to Egypt. He wrote a liturgy in sixteen pages
in Greek, which was translated by Thomas of Amid into
Syriac. It begins thus, “Almighty Lord and master of all,
thou art the ocean of safety and love,” a copy of which
is preserved at our library in Hims. 515 According to a
rather untrustworthy account, he died in 625 or 630,
probably in 643. He is commemorated on the eigh-
teenth of November.

85. The Priest Tuma (Thomas)

Thomas was known to have been at the Monastery of
“Qidr” near Batnan 516 at the first half of the seventh
century. He wrote a history tabulated according to
years, beginning from the year 5 1 2 in which Severus was
consecrated a patriarch, until the Muslims’ conquest of
Syria in 636 and even until the death of Heraclius in 641 .
In this history he utilized the history of Eusebius (also
tabulated according to years) and other sources. Ac-
cording to Baumstark, “The Book of the Caliphs in-
cludes three short historical tracts by Thomas.” 517 His
brother Simon, also a monk, was a doorkeeper of the
Monastery of Qidr and was killed in 636, during the
Arab invasion of the Mountain of Mardin. 518

86. The Priest Emaues

The priest Emaues (Emoy), a skillful Persian physi-
cian, lived either at the end of the Sassanian period or
at the beginning of the Arab rule. He composed an
Ephramite ode on the Resurrection of the Dead in
twenty-seven pages. 519

87. John of the Sedras (d. 648)

John III patriarch of Antioch was a prominent and
energetic church dignitary, a pious, intelligent and far-
sighted man. He entered the monastic order at the
Monastery of Ousebuna where he mastered Greek and
Syriac as well as theology. He became the disciple and
secretary of Athanasius I and succeeded him to the
Apostolic See in 631 . He witnessed the Arab conquest of

al-Jazira. He was a man who faced difficulties and hard-
ships with patience and the course of events made him
compliant.

At his behest, the Gospels were translated from
Syriac into Arabic by a skillful Christian Orthodox Arab
translators from the Banu Uqayl, Tanukh and Tay at the
request of Umayr ibn Sad ibn Abi Waqqas al-Ansari the
Amir of aljazira around 643 920 but this translation did
notcome down to us. With this Amir, he entered into an
elaborate dialogue on the establishment of the facts of
Christianity, which was written down by Severus, one of
his secretaries. It is titled “Letter of the Patriarch Mar
John concerning His Conversation with the Amir of the
Muslims.” This letter was translated into French and
published by Nau. 921

John also composed supplicatory prayers known as
the Sedras or Husoyos, which he incorporated into church
rituals. They usually begin with praise and glorification.
Of these Sedras we found a large collection in the oldest
copy at the British Museum, 522 most of which undoubt-
edly came from the pen of this Father who was nick-
named “John of the Sedras .” They are written in a
smooth and splendid style. Nine of these Sedras bear his
name, the first of which is for Lent, the second for the
Resurrection, the third and the fourth for the repen-
tance of sinners, the fifth for the dispelling of ordeals,
the sixth for vespers, nocturn, morning and the seventh
hour of prayer, the eighth for the dead and the ninth for
the Friday morning of the fifth week of the fasting. 925 We
have also found three husoyos of his for the celebration
of the Eucharist, the first of which begins thus: “Praise
be to the pure sacrifice who became the priest of his
person;” the second begins thus: “Praise be to the
heavenly Lord of hosts;” and the third begins: “O Lord
who art truly a good master.” 524 He has also drawn a
liturgy which begins: “O Lord, who art delighted by love
and enjoyest safety;” 525 a homily on the consecration of
the Chrism, beginning thus: “Beloved brethren let us
talk philosophically a little bit in behalf of this present
sacred feast” 926 and a letter to Marutha, maphrian of
T akrit, which he wrote at the begin ning of his patriarch-
ate. 527 He also wrote a magnificent doctrinal treatise in
thirty-nine pages addressed to the Chorepiscopus
Theodorus, which he opened with a general proclama-
tion to the children of the Holy Church, and declared
in detail the creed of Faith in support of the true
Apostolic belief, citing as evidence the Fathers, one of
whom isjohn ofjerusalem. Furthermore, he condemned
in this treatise the heresy of the Phantasiasts, and con-
cluded it with the history of the leaders of this heresy
and the account of their false ordinations. 928 He died on
the fourteenth of December, which is also the day of his
commemoration.

88. Marutha of Takrit (d. 649)

A luminary of the church of the East and an orna-
ment of his time, he was born at Shawarzaq, a village of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Beth Nuhadra 529 in the province of Mosul, and became
a monk at the Monastery of Nardes at the prime of his
age. Then he journeyed to the Monastery of Mar Zakka
or Zacchaeus near Callinicus (al-Raqqa) in quest of
knowledge, and for ten years studied theological sci-
ences, Greek and Syriac under the monk Theodore at
this monastery. He then moved to the Edessene moun-
tain, where he mastered calligraphy, and also studied
under the blind monk Thomas. From there he went to
the Monastery of Mar Matta (St. Matthew’s) to teach
theology. He also laid down appropriate methods for
services and worship for the monks of this monastery. At
the end of the year 628 he was consecrated a Maphrian
of the See of Takrit and held a Synod at the Monastery
of Mar Matta, in which he drew up twenty-four canons.
He organized twelve dioceses for the Maphrianate See
of Takrit and added to them three more dioceses in
Azerbayjan, Khurasan and Afghanistan. He built
churches, founded monasteries, imposed the Fasting of
Nineveh and administered the Church in an Apostolic
manner. He died on the second of May, 649, which also
became the day of his commemoration.

Among his works is a commentary on the Gospels,
portions of which are reproduced in the collection of
the monk Severus; festal homilies, one of which is the
homily for Low Sunday, beginning thus: “Brethren, we
are celebrating the new day (New or Low Sunday) , and
remembering the Sacraments;” 550 a polemical treatise
against the Nestorians mentioned in his biography but
lost; a detailed letter to the Patriarch John, containing
the account of Barsoum ofNisibin and the Nestorianism
which invaded Persia as had been related by the authori-
ties of church history. He was also the author of a liturgy
beginning thus: “O Lord who art good by His nature
and a giver of safety and peace,” and a husoyo for Passion
Week beginning: “O Lord our God, whose mercy doth
naturally exist in Thee.” To him was ascribed the life of
Ahudemeh, metropolitan ofTakrit, 551 and according to
a less reliable account, some supplicatory prose hymns.

89. John, metropolitan of Busra (d. 650)

John of Busra, also called the Metropolitan of the
Lands of the Arabs, was a Doctor of the church who had
been ordained by Athanasius I and whose name had
become popular among the illustrious bishops of his
time by the year 617. According to the monk of Zuqnin,
he died at Amid in the year 650 and was buried in the
church of St John the Baptist. John wrote a splendid
liturgy in nineteen pages beginning: “O Lord the giver
of love and concord.” 552 John has been mentioned by
Jacob of Bartulli in his Book of Treasures, part 4, chapter
1 . Jacob wrote, “According to his (John’s) liturgy, the
Angels were created before the world, as has been
thought by the Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Jacob of Edessa
and Moses bar Kifa, ” Assemani erroneously thought this
belief was in a commentary on the Holy Scriptures

written byjohn.

90. The Priest Andrew of Jerusalem

At the end of his commentary on the twenty-sixth
psalm, Bar Salibi said, “Andrew was an Orthodox priest
who concerned himself with commenting upon all the
Scriptural Books, especially the Psalms, and in these
commentaries he cited verbatim the opinions of the
Doctors of the church without adding anything of his
own. But he quoted first the commentaries of Origen,
Severus, Gregory the Theologian, Basilius, Didymus,
Cyril, Eusechius of Jerusalem, Iyawannis (John),
Athanasius, Theophilus, Eusebius and Theodoret the
Nestorian, namely, by stating the verse of the psalm and
following it with the commentaries of the Doctors of the
Church on each word of it. He also divided the psalms
of David into five volumes.” 555 He is, therefore, one of
the commentators whom Bar Salibi consulted in his
commentary on the Old Testament, especially, on the
book of Psalms. He also copied briefly from Andrew’s
first book. At the British Museum there survives Andrew’s
discourse on the death and funeral of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. It begins thus: “Beloved, those who are being
illumined by a pure and immaterial light, with knowl-
edge that has not been marred by fallacy, in order to
contemplate the symbolic spiritual way...” 554 The time of
Andrew was not mentioned by an old or a new historian
and is unknown. I think that he was a seventh century
scholar.

91. The Ascetic John of Naqar

The compiler of the old book of the Didascalia x
preserved in Midyat, reproduced a short tract which
includes the following statement: “Testimonies about
Baptism and the partaking in the Holy Sacraments by St.
John of Naqar the ascetic in the Holy Mountain of
Edessa. ” Remarkable sayings by thisjohn have also been
mentioned by the book of ascetical treatises at the
church of Inhil 555 and at the Birmingham’s library. 556
He had probably lived between the sixth and the eighth
centuries.

92. Denha I, maphrian of the East (d. 659)

Denha became a monk and studied at the Monastery

of Mar Matta (St. Matthew’s) under his predecessor
Marutha ofTakrit, whom he also succeeded to the See
of Takrit in 649. He wrote a detailed biography of
Marutha in an excellently formulated composition 557
which was translated into French and published by Nau.
We have translated an abridgement of this biography
into Arabic and published it in our Magazine. 558

93. Janurin of Amid (665)

Janurin or Shanurin 559 of Amid, also known as
Kandidatos was a logician and a skillful translator from
Greek to Syriac. 540 In the year 665, he translated seven-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

teen poems of Gregory Nazianzen, the first of which is
the one Gregory composed on himself. Of his affairs we
know nothing more than what we have stated.

94. Severus Sabukht (d. 667)

Severus was a skillful and famous Doctor, a mathema-
tician, a philosopher, nay the first scholar of the church
who explored the obscurities of astronomical and natu-
ral sciences. He was born atNisibin in the last quarter of
the seventh century, became a monk and was educated
in the Monastery of Qinnesrin, where he also acquired
that knowledge of Greek and Syriac language and
literature and of the Persian language, which made him
the goal of seekers of knowledge. He was one of the
prominent scholars who was graduated from this fa-
mous school, in which he also spent his life teaching
philosophy, theology, and mathematics, besides the
writings of all the Syrian scholars. He was most promi-
nent in astronomy, and even excelled the Greeks in this
field.** 1 Many pupils studied under him, the most fa-
mous of whom were the Patriarch Athanasius II, and
Jacob of Edessa. In 638 Severus was ordained a bishop
of the city of Qinnesrin, or, as it was said, of his monas-
tery. He died in 667 at an advanced age. He was assigned
the twentieth ofjuly (or according to another calendar
the eleventh of September) as the festival day of his
commemoration. In the latter calendar he was called
“Severus the Mathematician.”

From the writings of Severus, which cover the fields
of theology, philosophy, and mathematics, very few
have come down to us.

Of his theological writings the following survive:

1) a treatise on the weeks of Daniel;

2) an extract on the date of the birth of Our Lord in
flesh and in what Greek year he was born;

3) two letters in seven pages to Sergius, abbot of the
Monastery of Khanushia in Sinjar, containing a com-
mentary on the two discourses of Gregory Nazianzen on
the Son and the Holy Spirit. In these letters, the name
of the author (Severus) was ascribed to his native home
Nisibin, which misled Chabot, who thought they be-
longed to a bishop of Nisibin who was Severus’ name-
sake.* 42

His philosophical writings are:

4) a short treatise on the AnalyticaPosteriora of Aristotle
written in 638 of which only three pages remain;* 13

5) extracts in three chapters from his treatise on
Hermeneuticis-,

6) aletter tohisfriendjonastheperiodeutes (visiting
cleric), explaining some points in the Rhetorica of
Aristotle; 344

7) a treatise he wrote for some of those who love
knowledge, explaining some logical points which had
been mentioned in his former letter to Jonas to whom
he sent a copy of this treatise;

8) a letter to the priest Ithalaha, who became a
bishop of Nineveh on certain terms in the treatise, De

Interpretatione.and on arithmetic, surveying, astronomy
and music, making the remark that he had written to
him a year ago, explaining some canons of the saintly
Fathers and also praising him because he had sent him
copies of the letters of Gregory and Basilius. 345

Of his astronomical works we have:

9) a magnificent treatise on the astrolabe in fifty-two
pages, translated into French and published by Nau in
1899; 346

1 0) a treatise on the signs of the Zodiac, which he
wrote in the year 659 or 660, of which only eighteen
chapters remain. These chapters were published by
Sachau in 1 870. 347 A few samples of these works exist in
a manuscript at the British Museum, such as the habit-
able and inhabitable portions of the earth, the condi-
tion of those living in all its sphere - above and below the
measurement of the heaven and the earth and the space
between them - and whether the sun moves under or
over the earth in the celestial sphere. To this treatise he
added in the year 665 from nineteen to twenty-seven
answers to astronomical, mathematical, and cosmo-
graphical questions at the request of the periodeutes
Basil of Cyprus. 348 This is probably the same treatise
which Bar Hebraeus alluded to in his book Ascent of the
Mind (p. 107);

1 1) a letter in eighteen pages addressed to the same
Basil on the fourteenth of the lunar month of April, 556,
about fixing the exact date of Easter; 349

12) three letters, also to Basil, on the science of
history, contained in the British Museum manuscript; 350

13) he translated from the Persian into Syriac an
abridged exposition of Aristotle’s Inlerpretation x which
had been translated from the original Greek to Persian
by Paul the Persian for King Khosrau I, 351 to which the
monk Severus added the fifth treatise of Aristotle on
logic; 14) the translation of Ptolemy’s Tetrapillon on the
composition of mathematical speech as is confirmed by
an established historical tradition. 352

Both Wright and Duval, quoting Assemani, who
quoted al-Duwayhi, have erroneously ascribed to him a
liturgy in the name of Severus of Qinnesrin, which, in
fact, belongs to Severus, bishop of Samosata, and abbot
of Qinnesrin as has been already mentioned. 353

95. The Monk Ithalaha

Ithalaha was a monk priest at the Monastery of Mar
Zakka (Zacchaeus) near al-Raqqa (Callinicus) in the
seventh century. He wrote a ten-page treatise entitled
“Questions of the Nestorians and the Refutation of their
Opinions about the Orthodox,” covering thirty-two of
these questions. 354 A British Museum manuscript con-
tains a scholion by Ithalaha regarding the order of the
discourses of Gregory Nazeanzen before he became a
priest. 355 William Wright, however, suspects that this
scholion belongs to Ithalaha. Therefore, this Ithalaha is
either Ithalaha of Nineveh, a monk at St. Matthew’s
Monastery, whom we think was ordained a bishop of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Gomel and Marga at the end of the year 628, or his
contemporary Ithalaha, a monk of the Monastery of
Mar Zakka.

96. Yunan (Jonas), bishop of Tall Mawzalt

Jonas was a learned monk and a periodeutes at one
of the monasteries in the middle of the seventh century.
To him Severus Sabukht addressed a letter, as has been
mentioned. He was ordained a bishop of Tall Mawzalt.
He also wrote a letter to a periodeutes named Theodorus,
containing the proofs concerning the restriction to one
wife only.* 56

97. Matta, metropolitan of Aleppo (669)

Matta became a monk and studied at the Monastery
of Zuqnin. According to the Edessene historian, “he was
a philosopher of the category of Severus Sabukht. ” 557 He
was ordained a bishop of Aleppo in the fourth decade
of the seventh century and became famous after 648. He
was still living in 669. 1 have seen no writing by him, but
perhaps he composed writings which have been lost.

98. The Bishop Severus

At the beginning of his career, Severus was a priest
and syncellus (secretary) of the Patriarch John III and
was also involved in studies. He wrote a letter to some of
his friends, answering sixteen legal questions, which he
read to the Patriarch, who approved it. A copy of this
letter in two pages survives in the Cambridge library,
containing eight questions, one of which is connected
with the hunters of Armenia. 558 After his elevation to the
office of bishop in 667, he wrote a treatise in four pages
on the time of Councils and the reasons for their
convening. A copy of this treatise survives in the Didascalia
in Midyat.

99. Master Sabroy

Sabroy, from the house of Abraham of the village of
Ramtashir, still living around the year 630 and in the
middle of the seventh century, was a master of grammar
and philosophy. In a letter to the Bishopjohn, Sabroy’s
grandson, Paul bar David, had this to say about him: “He
(Sabroy) founded at the village of Beth Shahaq near
Nineveh, a school for the teaching of correct Syriac
language, which had more than three hundred pupils,
and from which were graduated many teachers. He also
wrote a dialogue in two books in refutation of the
Nestorians and three treatises answering sixty questions
suggested to him by a blind teacher from the same
school.” 559

100-101. Master Ram Yeshu and Master Gabriel

Ram Yeshu and Gabriel are the sons of Master Sabroy,
who studied under him and supported his language
program at the school of Beth Shahaq and at the
Monastery of St. Matthew. Both brothers undertook the
correction, punctuation and vocalization of many books.

Both the Syrian Orthodox and the Eastern traditions
agree that Ram Yeshu was the inventor of the diacritical
points for distinguishing the vowel letters. 560 As has
been formerly mentioned, Sabroy and his sons wrote
the Basilica 1 61 as well as the canticles for both choirs for
Palm Sunday and Passion Week. They also wrote a
service book for towns to be used by the Church of the
East.

102. The Patriarch Sawira (Severus) II (d. 681 )

Known as bar Mashqa, Severus entered the Monas-
tery of Ouspholis (The Specula or Watchtower) where
he completed his studies. In 668, he was elevated to the
Apostolic See. Severus was too strict because of his over-
indulgence in asceticism, and thus created a rift be-
tween himself and some of the bishops. Before his death
in 681, he wrote a letter to John, metropolitan of the
Monastery of Mar Matta (St. Matthew’s) and Persia,
authorizing him and two bishops, Joseph and Sergius,
to undertake the settlement of peace in the Church
after the fulfillmen tof the conditions he laid down. This
letter was incorporated by Michael the Great in his
Chronicle . 562 He is also said to have written some husoyos.

103. Rabban (Master) Aaron the Persian

Rabban Aaron the Persian is a scholar who belongs to

the second half of the seventh century. He was praised
byjacob of Edessa in his letter to Eustathius (Cyrissona)
of Dara. Moreover, in his sixth letter to John of Atharb,
George, bishop of the Arab tribes, had the following to
say about him: “He (Rabban Aaron) was a respectable
old man deeply versed in knowledge, and the abbot of
savan t monks. ” The historian of Zuqnin also mentioned
him by stating that “Aaron, the Persian commentator,
lived in the time of Sawira (Severus) II (668-681) .” 565 We
have also read in some of the manuscripts in Mosul that
he was known as “The Owner of the library, and that he
wrote a book.” 564 Most probably he was an abbot of a
monastery in al-Jazira.

104. Thomas of Amid

Thomas was also a contemporary scholar ofjacob of
Edessa, whom he mentioned after Rabban Aaron in his
afore-mentioned letter, and even likened him around
the year 680 unto the star which guided the Magians.
Perhaps Thomas became the bishop of Amid and died
around the year 700, for the historian of Zuqnin states
that ‘Thomas III, bishop of Amid, was one of the
illustrious bishops of that time.” 565

105. Athanasius II of Balad (d. 686)

An erudite philosophical scholarand skillful transla-
tor, Athanasius was born at Balad on the right bank of
the Tigris in a city which no longer survives. At Qinnesrin
he studied sciences, Syriac and Greek under Severus
Sabukht. He became a monk and moved to the great
Monastery of Beth Malka near Antioch, not the small

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Monastery of Mar Malke in Tur Abdin as has errone-
ously been thought by most Orientalists. At this monas-
tery, he pursued the sciences of philosophy diligently,
following his thorough and learned master. In January,
645, he translated the Isagoge of Porphyry 566 and another
an onymous Isagoge , 367 the First ofwhich was published by
Freimann in Berlin in 1897. 366 Later he was ordained a
priest and resided in Nisibin. At Nisibin he translated
into Syriac in 669 selections from the letters of Severus
of Antioch at the request of Matta, metropolitan of
Aleppo, and Daniel, metropolitan of Edessa. 369 This
translation made Baumstark believe that there was
another translator by the name of Athanasius ofNisibin.
We have found no evidence by him (Baumstark) to
substantiate his opinion, which is more of a conjec-
ture; 3 ’ 0 nay the ancient Zafaran manuscript states that
this priest was the patriarch Athanasius himself.
Athanasius also translated the second discourse of his
(Severus’) book against Nephalius 371 and a group of the
homilies of Gregory Nazianzen . 572 Also, he translated in
the year 666-667, nine treatises of the Book of the Six Days
by Basil of Caesarea, as suggested by the two formerly
mentioned metropolitans above and by the priest and
syncellus Severus, as is mentioned in the vocalization of
the Holy Bible and the writings of the Doctors which are
at the Zafaran library. 573 It is also evident from the three
letters of the Catholicos Timothy which he wrote to the
monk Sergius, the Doctor, around the year 800, that he
(Athanasius) also translated pseudo-Dionysius the
Areopagite. This translation became widespread. Timo-
thy wrote, “Proceed to the Monastery of Mar Matta and
transcribe the translation of the book pseudo-Dionysius
the Areopagite by Athanasius or by Phocas of Edessa” 374
[sic].

Athanasius’ translations were of sound taste, master-
ful style and intrinsic eloquence. In commenting on the
translation of the said book, Phocas of Edessa said that
Mar Athanasius andjacob of Edessa perfected the art of
translation from Greek into Syriac. He meant that
these two lifted translation from an artless to a scien-
tific level.

At the end of the year 683, Athanasius was conse-
crated a patriarch and wrote a ten-page proclamation to
the company of the bishops, mentioning the names of
seventeen of them. 375 He also issued a public letter on
how the Christians should conduct themselves among
the Muslims. He also prohibited them from eating the
meat of sacrificial animals. 376 In addition, he composed
supplicatory prayers, three to be used at the celebration
of the Eucharist. The first begins thus: “Thanks to the
Good Shepherd by whose body the flock is fed;” the
second begins “O Lord by whom exists and lives every-
thing;” and the third one begins: “O God the Word and
most high.” Besides these, he composed prayers for the
dead. To him, John of Alexandria wrote a synodical
letter in nine pages on the twenty-fourth of June, 686,
beginning thus: “May the verses of the Holy Bible be the

opening of my speech.” 377 At the end of this year he
died.

106. Ibrahim al-Sayyad (686)

He is Ibrahim II, maphrian of the East, nicknamed al-
Sayyad “the Hunter.” He was a man of letters and drew
up a liturgy beginning thus, “O God the most high and
kind.” 378 He died in 686. 379

107. John I, maphrian of Takrit (d. 688)

Known as Bar Kifa, John was a metropolitan of the
Monastery of Mar Matta and later elevated to the See of
Takrit. At the Council of Ras Ayn, after the death of
Sawira (Severus) II, he proclaimed a public message
addressed to the Antiochian bishops to establish peace
in the Church. A copy of this message can be found in
the history of Michael the Great 380 He died in 688, a
saindy and venerable old man.

108. The Presbyter Simon of the Monasteiy of
Qinnesrin

Presbyter Simon was a monk at the Monastery of
Qinnesrin, who lived at the end of the seventh century.
He wrote a lengthy and polished treatise on the doc-
trine of the followers of Maximus, who believed in two
wills in Christ. This treadse is drawn from the books of
the Maronites written against this doctrine. The text of
this treatise has been incorporated by an anonymous
Edessan chronicler into his history, vol. I, chapter 131.
Baumstark thinks that Simon was a nadve of Saqra, a
village in the vicinity of Qinnesrin, and that he was a
Julianist and a disputant who refuted some of the
Manichean heresies. 381

109. Mar Jacob of Edessa (d. 708)

A man unique in the extent of his knowledge and
chief among the doctors of the church, Jacob had a
brilliant mind, cridcal temperament, sharp wit and
sound judgment. He was a grammarian, a man of
letters, a poet, a translator, an historian, a commenta-
tor, a legislator and a philosopher-theologian. He was
prominent in each one of the sciences which he had
acquired, showing great capability and skill in writing.
In the earlier periods he had no equal, and among the
scholars of later periods, his extensive knowledge was
rivalled only by that of Bar Hebraeus. By his vocalization
of the Books of the two Testaments, he preserved the
Holy Bible from distortion and misspelling; his revision
of translations of some works of the doctors of the
church, show that he was highly proficient in philology.
His philosophical and theological books prove that he
was the most distinguished and the finest scholar of his
time; his interesting letters contain knowledge and
wisdom; his legal opinions and juristic ideas prove that
he had a sound mind, a guiltless heart and perceptive
individual judgment. Consequently he shows himself
judge of creative as well as traditional knowledge within

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

both of which lies the final decision. This is due to the
fact that he used opinions of the Christian authorities
and blended them with his own intelligent opinions.
Finally his ritual books leave no doubt that he is the
greatest doctor of the church and the bearer of the
banner of its glory. His books are the end beyond which
there is no further quest for a researcher. It is no
surprise that he is considered unequaled in all the East
and the most prominent of all the Syrian scholars in the
ancient world as well as in the Middle Ages.

Marjacob 382 was bom at the village of Ayndaba in the
province of Antioch, most probably about 633. The
name of his father is thought to be Isaac. Under Father
Cyriacus, the periodeutes (visiting cleric) of his prov-
ince he studied the principles of the sciences, the books
of the two Testaments and the books of the doctors of
the church. Then he wen t to the Monastery of Qinnesrin
where he became a monk and studied the literature of
the Greek language under Severus Sabukht. Together
with his companion Athanasius of Balad, who was older
than he, he completed his studies and became well-
versed in philology, philosophy and theology. Also he
became well-trained in the ascetic and virtuous life.
Then he journeyed to Alexandria to penetrate more
deeply into the minutiae and incomprehensibilities of
philosophy. He returned to al-Sham, became a monas-
tic atEdessaand studied Hebrew. AtEdessa, he achieved
wide fame. He was sought by scholars and lovers of
learning, who corresponded with him about problems
which he competently answered. In 672 he was or-
dained a deacon and then a priest. In 684, he was
chosen and was ordained by his friend Athanasius II, a
metropolitan of Edessa, from which he received his
generic name. He remained in Edessa four years, dur-
ing which he became very strict with the monks and
clergy concerning the observation of laws that had been
neglected. He expelled those who disobeyed him. In
the meantime, the patriarch John III and the bishops
advised him to temporize and treat the clergy as toler-
antly as conditions would permit. This suggestion made
him more furious and, thereupon, he openly burned a
copy of the neglected canonical rules, resigned his post
and left the diocese, taking with him his pupils Daniel
and Constantine to theMonasteryofSt. Jacobin Kesum.
He wrote two treatises, or two poems, in one of which he
criticized one of the pastors; in the second he rebuked
those who violate the canonical rules. 583 After a short
period, he was appointed a teacher of the Greek lan-
guage at the Monastery of Ousebuna in the province of
Antioch, where he remained for eleven years, revitaliz-
ing the study of this language. He also commented on
the Holy Scriptures according to the Greek version.
And when some of the monks who hated the Greeks
showed disagreement, he left for the Monastery of
Talada accompanied by seven pupils. He remained at
Talada about nine years, devoting his time to the revi-
sion of the translation of the Old Testament. The Book

of Kings which he had translated in 705 is preserved at
the library of Paris. 584 When at the end of 707, Metro-
politan Habib, who was ordained in place of Mar Jacob,
passed away, the congregation of Edessa requested
Jacob to return to them, recognizing his excellence. He
returned to Edessa at the end of January, 708. Four
months later he went to the Monastery of Talada to
collect his books, and he died on the fifth ofjune, which
is also the day of his commemoration. He was nick-
named “the man who preferred toil” or “the militant” as
well as “the translator of books.”

Jacob was zealous and saintly high-minded. He was
also hot-tempered, of great determination and no le-
niency; thus, he was unable to administer the affairs of
his congregation amicably. In this regard he shares
similar characteristics with the very learned Gregory
Nazianzen. Nevertheless, his resignation provided him
the opportunity to spend the ripest years of his life in the
service of knowledge. Therefore, he benefited the
Church of God in ways he would have been unable to
had he remained in his diocese.

Following is a list of his writings in the Syriac language:

1) Revision of the Pshitto translation of the Old
Testament which is, to the Syrians, the first legal work of
vocalizing the Holy Bible. Jacob divided the Holy Scrip-
tures into chapters with a preface containing a short
summary of the content of each one of them. He also
wrote numerous commentaries and marginal notes
showing the differences between the Greek and Syriac
translations, or explaining the pronunciation of the
vocalized words. Of this revision, the Pentateuch, I
Samuel, II Samuel and the two prophecies of Isaiah and
Daniel have come down to us, but they are slightly
wanting. As to the rest of the books of the Holy Bible, we
have only portions of them. The Orientalists were able
to publish whatever they could find of the annotations
of this book in the Catena Patrum of Severus the Monk, 585
or in the annotations of other commentators.

2) The Book of Kings which he vocalized in 705
according to the two Greek and Syriac translations.

3) The book of vocalizing the terms of the Old and
New Testaments is considered one of his most magnifi-
cent works. This book is a significant thick volume,
containing the text of verses which required the vocal-
ization of proper names and peculiar phrases. These he
perfectly vocalized, appending to them the vocalized
writings of ancient Christian leading authorities like
Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, John
Chrysostom and Severus of Antioch. This work became
a model for other scholars. 386

4) A commentary on the Book of Genesis and the
Four Books which followit, together with other books of
the Old Testament. The title of this book is Scholia * as
mentioned by the Catena Patrum of Severus. The library
of the British Museum contains chapters of the Books of
Genesis, Exodus and the four Books of Kings from this
Scholia. 387 There is also part of this Scholia at our library

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

in Hims and at the Vatican library. Part of this Scholia was
published by Dr. Phillips in 1864.

5) A treatise on theology mentioned by Bar Hebraeus
in his Hudoye, sx and also cited by Moses bar Kifa in his
two books Personal Authority and The Creation of Angels
chapter 48, which I think is no other than the eighth
treatise titled The Divinity and Incarnation of his book The
Six Days. im

6) A treatise on The First Cause, the Creator, the
Eternal and Almighty God, the Preserver of all created
beings. This treatise was mentioned by George, bishop
of the Arabs. This treatise has been lost. 590

7) A treatise on The Six Days which he wrote at the end
of his life at the suggestion of his pupil Constantine,
metropolitan of Aleppo, and later of Edessa. In this
treatise he discussed the creation of beings (seven
chapters), following the method of Basilius and other
Fathers who wrote on this subject. This treatise contains
interesting physical subjects which indicate the compe-
tence of the author in treating diverse sciences and
show he is completely at home with eloquent composi-
tion contrary to the opinion of contemporary writers.
This treatise comprises 356 pages. It was probably writ-
ten after the author finished his treatise on the First
Cause, both of which would form a theological encyclo-
pedia. Death came to him when he had almost finished
this treatise; itscompletion was left to his friend George,
bishop of the Arabs who added ten pages to it. This
treatise was published by Chabot and Vaschalde, using
a manuscript in Lyons transcribed in 839. 591 This manu-
script has two old copies, one of which was made in 822
for Theodosius, metropolitan of Edessa. It belonged
first to the Monastery of Mar Matta and was later
possessed by the Chaldean library at Amid, from whence
it was moved to the Chaldean patriarchal residency in
Mosul. 592 The second one is at Leiden, and was tran-
scribed in 1 183. 595

8) Questions and replies on the essence of Christian-
ity, followed by examples derived from some Biblical
passages concerning the training of pupils. 599

9) Prose homilies on the sacrifice in the Holy Eucha-
rist, against the use of unleavened bread, against an
Armenian denomination which believed in two natures
in Christ, against those who violate the canons of the
Church and on the consecration of the Chrism. 595 He
has also a treatise on the rapture of the Apostle Paul to
the third heaven. 596

1 0) A short commentary in two pages on the celebra-
tion of the Eucharist, which he wrote for George the
stylite ascetic in Saruj. 597

1 1) A treatise on the reason the monks wear wool. 598

12) The organization of the regular weekday service
book known as the Ishhim . s 99

13) The organization of the church service books
(fanqiths) for Sundays and for festivals. Regarding church
rituals his excellent services surpassed those composed
by all of the church Fathers all over the countries of the

Syrians except in the lands of the East, as has been
previously mentioned. 900

14) The Book of Treasures, which contains the orders
of Baptism and the solemnization of Matrimony (in-
cluding the legal contract of marriage and the solemni-
zation of the marriage of widowed spouses), and the
consecration of water on the Epiphany. 901

15) The orders of funerals of priests, bishops, lay-
men, laywomen and children. 902

1 6) T ouching and passionate madrashesto be chanted
on the eve of Good Friday (based on the melody of “Rise
up, O Paul,”), others to be chanted on the eve of
Monday of Passion Week and metrical lines specifically
for Passion Week. 905

1 7) A revision of the liturgy of St.James, according to
the Greek version. 909

1 8) A liturgy beginning thus, “O Lord the Father of
all and the Host of Hosts,” in sixteen pages. It was
translated and published by Renaudot. 905 Also a very
lengthy husoyoo n the congregation of the Jews and on
the Church beginning thus, “Blessed art thou, Cluster
of the grapes of life.” 906

19) A calendar of feasts for the cycle of the year,
which has been ascribed to him in many copies of
manuscripts.

20) A translation of the homilies ofSeverusof Antioch
into Syriac. This translation was preceded by the trans-
lation of the same homilies made by Paul, metropolitan
of Callinicus. Jacob completed his translation in 701.
According to the complete copy dated 708, these homi-
lies numbered one hundred and twenty-five homilies.
These are the best of his translations. 907

21) Revision of the hymns of Severus of Antioch,
which had been translated by the abbot Paul. The oldest
copy of this translation which has come down to us was
probably transcribed in his own handwriting and was
completed in 675.

22) In his book Semhe (book 5, chapter 4, of the first
treatise) , Bar Hebraeus stated that ‘The Edessan (Jacob
of Edessa) revised the poems of Gregory the Theolo-
gian, which have already been translated by the for-
merly mentioned Paul.” However, some Orientalist
doubt whether Jacob undertook the revision of these
poems.

23) Translation of Aristotle’s Categories into Syriac;
the Isagoge followed by the Categories and the five predi-
cates of the Isagoge. This translation comprises 128
pages. 908

24) A translation into Syriac of the Chronicles of
Eusebius of Caesaria at the end of the seventh century,
as is related by Michael the Great 909

25) A translation of the books of the second canons
ascribed to Clement of Rome, the first of which is the
apocryphal book of the Covenant of Our Lord written in
the fifth century.

26) A translation of the canons of the first Council of
Carthage in the time of St. Cyprian, and the canons of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the three Ecumenical Councils in 687. 410

27) A translation of the apocryphal history of the
children of Jehonadab (the Rechabites) ofjewish ori-
gin. It was translated from the Greek and published by
Nau. 411

28) The book of Enchiridon (Compendium) which is
a collection of scientific and philosophical phrases. In
this book the author particularly explains the terms
employed by the theologians such as essence, hypostasis,
nature, person and individual 412

29) A book of history on the same method of the
Chronicle by Eusebius, to which he added information
until 692. In this history he included historical canons
prefixed by chapters in which he revised the Chronicle of
Eusebius and corrected his mistakes in the computa-
tion of years. This history, which is a short one, was
completed by an anonymous historian until the year
710. 41S Most of this history has been lost, except for forty-
six pages which were translated into Latin and pub-
lished by Brooks in 1903.

30) A grammar of the Syriac language ( the language
of Mesopotamia) of which only fragments have come
down to us and have been published. 414 On the basis of
this book, Eastern and Western grammarians wrote
their grammars. Also they considered this the first book
written on the grammar of this language. Jacob also
discussed several grammatical questions in his letters.

31) His numerous canons, which cover forty pages in
the ancient copy which we possess, transcribed in 1 204 . 415
Some of these canons have been abridged from the
original, which covers about seventy pages. These can-
ons are:

1) canons addressed to Thomas the recluse ascetic of
Tall Rumnin on the Consecration of the Chalice;

2) canons on whether the holy Chalice should be left
from day to day without drinking its contents;

3) canons on the Order of Baptism;

4) canons on the order of the Consecration of Water;

5) canons in the form of replies to twenty-seven
questions asked by John the Stylite of Atharb. These
canons are prefixed by a four-page letter from Jacob to
John;

6) canons in the form of replies to seventeen ques-
tions asked by John;

7) canons in the form of replies to three questions
asked by Ibrahim the recluse ascetic. They cover two
pages; 416

8) canons in the form of replies to three questions
asked by Thomas the recluse ascetic;

9) canons addressed to Addai, the priest from the
vicinity of Mardin, in reply to fifty-one questions, of
which two pages are wanting. The number of these
questions contained in the ancient and lengthy copy of
the Zafaran’s monastery, which is undoubtedly the
original copy on which more recent copies are based, is
seventy-three;

10) thirty-one canons which he issued himself;

11) canons in the form of replies to seven questions
addressed to him by the priest Addai, which brings the
number of questions to one hundred and eleven;

12) canons in the form of replies to questions asked
by the priest Thomas of which one question and its reply
were found in this copy. The canons in the form of
replies from number ten to twelve inclusive, covering
aboutnine pages. The manuscript of Basekhra contains
twenty-three canonsissued by Marjacob, but the author
has abridged these canons and questions.

The total number of the canons of this doctor is one
hundred and sixty-six from which the church chose
what it desired and added them to the book of the
Hudoye.

32) When Jacob of Edessa attained the quintessence
of knowledge, he was sought by distinguished learned
clergy and laymen, who brought to him questions and
problems to solve. He dictated his letters on these
questions and problems with the result that most of his
knowledge came to be recorded in the form of letters.
We do not set here the exact number of his letters,
although we may obviouslyjudge that they were numer-
ous. In London British Museum we found a manuscript
containing twenty-three of these letters in 138 pages 417
We also read in the collection of Basibrina Canons
eleven letters in thirty large size pages and written in
fine script. We have a photographic copy of most of the
contents of the British Museum’s manuscript. However,
a small portion of these letters has been published; five
letters were published by Revue del’Orient Chretien. The
total which we were able to obtain is forty-six letters.
They are as follows with their contents:

1) a letter to George, bishop of Saruj, on Syriac
orthography, in which Jacob asked the copyists to be
accurate in their copying and to be exact in the vocaliza-
tion of terms and their diacritical points. Also he men-
tioned the excellence of the skill of orthography and its
importance. 418 This letter was published by Phillips and
then by Martin in 1869; 419

2) a letter on the diacritical points which should be
placed over or beneath the words to signify their exact
meaning and to distinguish between the synonyms. He
divided this letter into five chapters. Both of these
letters (this letter and the preceding one) comprise six
pages; 420

3) aletter addressed to Paul, the presbyter of Antioch
on the Syriac alphabet and the improvement of Syriac
writing; 421

4) a lengthy letter to the ascetic priest Thomas who
became a worshipping recluse at Tall Rumnin, on the
order of celebrating the Eucharist (in six large size
pages); 422

5) a letter to the same Paul on whether we should
leave the holy Chalice from day to day without drinking
its contents

6) a three-page letter to the priest Addai on the
Order of Baptism; 423

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

7) a letter to the deacon Bar Hadhbshabba from the
Monastery of Talitha on the worshipping of the Chris-
tians towards the east; 424

8) a letter to the same against the Council of
Chalcedon. He wrote this letter when he was still a
deacon; 425

9) a letter to his friend, the dignitary Eustathius of
Dara also named Cyrissona which means master in
Greek, in reply to his question: “Which path we should
follow, the heavenly or the earthly?”;

10) a second letter to Eustathius apologizing for not
being able to accept his invitation to go to Dara. He
wrote this letter at forty-two years of age when he was still
a deacon;

11-12) a third and a fourth letter to the same, ex-
pounding the contents of his metrical discourse which
will be mentioned later;

13) a fifth letter to the same begins by discussing
some of the letters of the Greek alphabet;

14) a sixth letter in which he began by discussing the
Jebeonites who tricked Joshua bar Nun for fear of the
children of Israel; 426

15) a seventh letter to the same in which he praised
the lands of the East, including Dara. In fact, he meant
to praise his correspondent and friend Eustathius by
alluding to him through knowledge and spiritual wis-
dom, concluding that he was indispensable;

16) a letter to the priest Ibrahim on the wine and vine
husbandry into which he incorporated a very high
spiritual meaning;

17) a second letter to the priest Ibrahim the ascetic
recluse at Kafr Uzil on diverse matters in one and a half
pages; 427

18) twenty-two letters to the stylite ascetic Priestjohn
of Atharb, one of the best learned men, the first of
which states, “A recent author and an intruder on the
tables of literature, has fabricated two poems on the Six
Days and ascribed them to Mar Jacob of Saruj. One of
these poems is in the seven-syllabic meter, whereas
Jacob of Saruj composed poetry only in the twelve-
syllabic meter. The second poem is in the twelve-syllabic
meter, but the stamp of both poems is remote from the
eloquence ofjacob of Saruj let alone his meaning;”

19) a second letter which he opened by stating, “I do
not know what to say regarding what you have written to
me. I find myself between two problems: firstly, I do not
know how to speak, and secondly, you have decided to
choose for yourself the medical profession while you
have no instruments nor knowledge of mixing of liq-
uids. Furthermore, your dispensary is empty of drugs
and medicines;”

20) a third letter to the same in which he mentioned
Noah the Righteous and the book Glaphyra by Cyril of
Alexandria;

21) a fourth letter to the same in which he states that
he neither knows who established the festival of the
Finding of the Cross which occurs on the fourteenth of

September nor the time and the reason for this festival.
He continues thathe hasnotfound such information in
a history or any book; all that he knew was that the
Church has from olden time observed this festival
according to the ancient tradition; 428

22) a fifth letter on the genealogy of the Lord Christ
in which he states, “I know that we have stories made up
by zealous men without Biblical testimonies, stating that
the holy Virgin Mary is the daughter of Hanna (Joanna)
and the righteousjehoiakin the son ofPhantir, who was
the brother of Malke the son of Yani, and that he was
living in Galilee in the same spot on which the city of
Tiberias was built.” He concludes by mentioning the
prophecy of Daniel concerning Christ;

23) a sixth letter to the same on the history of the
world, which according to some writers, begins at the
year 5180 B.C., but according to Eusebius, at 4888 B.C.
In this letter he alluded to the historians Africanus,
Eusebius, Clement of Alexandria and his brother An-
drew the Great, 429 Hippolites, Metrodores, Eunixanus
the Alexandrian monk and Andronicus. He also men-
tioned the reason he considered the birth of Christ to
have taken place in the year 309 of the Greeks whereas
Eusebius fixed the date at 31 2 of the Greeks, telling how
Severus Sabukht followed Eusebius in this regard and
how he corrected Eusebius;

24) a seventh letter stating that Clement of Rome,
the disciple of the Apostle Peter, mentioned in the
eighth Diatexis that the books of Solomon the Sage
(Ecclesiastes) are five, but he did not list them, and that
the church authorities mentioned only three books by
Solomon. Further, he mentioned why the Books of
Ecclesiastes, Bar Sirach, Tobit, Esther, Judith and the
three Books of the Maccabees, are not considered
canonical books, and that the Book of Wisdom, or
Ecclesiastes as it is called by the Greeks, isnot the writing
of Solomon;

25) an eighth letter holding that pious Christians,
who had erred or sinned do benefit from the prayers,
offerings and alms offered on their behalf, unlike the
hypocrites, on whose behalf, none of these things should
be offered; 450

26) a ninth letter on whether the life of man islimited
and that man dies at a time chosen by God; 451

27) a tenth letter claiming that man neither dies
before his time nor without the order and permission of
God his creator and ruler. He supported this point by
the testimonies of Christian authorities and the philoso-
phers;

28) an eleventh letter ruling that the secret words are
not to be uttered before every one; 432

29) a twelfth letter on the children who receive
Baptism; 455

30) a thirteenth letter on God’s care of His created
beings and the refutation of the doctrine of Fate and
Predestination;

31) a fourteenth letter on the observers of the Sab-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

bath and their female leader Camso in Edessa, who had
become their bishop (they were mentioned by St.
Ephraim); on the heretical Quqaye; on Mar Phalut,
bishop of Edessa; on the reason God told Abraham that
“thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs
and that they shall be afflicted for four hundred years;” 454
the reason Abraham left his homeland Ur of the
Chaldees; on whether it is true, as it is said, that in the
time preceding Moses there was no book or Bible; on
who was the Ethiopian woman in whose behalf Miriam
and Aaron spoke; 455 on the pride of Satan and the
Lord’s saying to him concerningjob, “Behold, he is in
thy hand, but save his life;” 436 on the Behemoth men-
tioned in the Book of Job; 437 on which Zachariah was
slain between the temple and the altar; 438 on whether
the son of the widow of Zarepath was the prophetjonah
bar Amittai; 439 on whether Tiglath-Pileser, King of the
Assyrians, was the King of Nineveh (in the time of
Jonah), and which is more correct: “Nineveh shall be
overthrown in forty days” or “in three days;” 440 on what
is the wild gourd which was picked by one of the sons of
the prophets; 441 On the Prophet Obediah, on the Tab-
ernacle, on Zeruiah the mother ofjoab, and Abigail the
mother of Amasa; that not all of the Psalms are the
composition of David, and whether it is true that the
Jews were called Hebrews after Eber, what are the three
thousand proverbs ascribed to Solomon, the sixty val-
iant men who guarded his chamber, and on Saul and
the ten righteous men in Sodom;

32) a fifteenth letter in reply to eighteen Biblical
problems mainly from the Old Testament. He men-
tioned in this letter tales ascribed to Epiphanius of
Cyprus;

33) a sixteenth letter in reply to thirteen problems
such as that the composer of the quqaye was Simon, the
potter of Kishir, and not Jacob of Saruj or another
person, that the closet in which our Lord ate the
Passover belonged to Lazarus not Nicodemus, that the
thorn which tormented the Apostle Paul was a gangre-
nous sore in his heel, that Philip who converted the
Ethiopian eunuch and the people of Samaria to Chris-
tianity was Philip the Deacon not the Apostle Philip,
that Kush is the country of Yemen not Abyssinia. They
also included replies to problems such as: who were the
Marys who witnessed the crucifixion, on Peter the Fuller
and Timothy of Alexandria nicknamed the “Weasel,”
on the Doctors of the Church whose names are Isaac,
that the numbers of the Magians was twelve, on the
reason the Jews worship facing the South, on the bones
which Ezekiel saw in the wilderness, on the difference
between the mind and the soul, on the prayer for the
dead and on the phrase in the Apostle’s Creed “to judge
the quick and the dead!” 442

34-38) five letter beginning from the seventeenth to
the twenty-first on solving Biblical problems (we do not
know the subject of the twentieth letter). The twenty-
firstletter in which the author mentions Daniel, Joachim

and Susanna is wanting;

39) a twenty-second letter in four pages on the
consecration of the Chrism in Maunday Thursday, and
on the difference between the Chrism and the Unction.
It begins thus: “Verily I say unto thee;” 443

40) a letter to the deacon George regarding the
exposition of the twenty-fifth madrash on the Nativity of
Christ as well as a madrash on refutation of critics. Both
of these madrashes are the composition of St Ephraim;

41) a letter to Moses of Tur Abdin, who is the
chronicler Moses of Inhil, mentioned by Bar Salibi at
the beginning of his commentary on the Gospels;

42) a letter to Jacob the stylite on canonical ques-
tions;

43) a letter to Simon the stylite;

44) a letter to a man named Stephen;

45) a letter to Thomas the sculptor on the solution of
problems sent to a certain Nestorian;

46) a letter to Lazarus the Ascetic. 444

33) Except the formerly mentioned madrashes 1 what
has come down to us from the poetry ofjacob of Edessa,
is a metrical discourse in the dodecasyllabic meter,
which he composed while still a deacon, for Cyrissona
or Eustathius of Dara, 445 and heptasyllabic metrical
discourses, unaddressed and imperfect in which he
discussed God, nature and mind. It begins thus, “God
creates by His power, but nature yields forth what it has
been ordered to do. The mind looks to nature and it
also generates according to its capability.” Then he
turns to censure the mind by saying, “Were not the
natures of created beings enough for thy investigation
that thou has even ventured to search for thy creator?”
To him, Baumstark ascribed four metrical discourses
on God, nature and wisdom which have also been
ascribed by some manuscript to Jacob of Saruj, on the
grounds that they resemble the poetry of Jacob of
Edessa more. 446

34) Replies to twenty-eight theological questions as
well as commentaries on the Bible suggested by his
disciple Constantine. 447

35) An explanation of the degrees of spiritual rela-
tionship which forbid marriage. 448

36) A fourteen page tract containing commentaries
on Hebrew as well as other terms mentioned in the
Books of the Prophets according to the version of the
Septuagint byjacob of Edessa. A copy of this tract is at
our library. 449

To him is also ascribed a letter on the acts of Christ
followed by the lives of the Doctors (of the church),
which in fact, is not his. 450

Anton Baumstark said. The Bible has found in Jacob
of Edessa the greatest theologian in the Syriac language
as evidenced by the contents of his diverse writings. The
different types of sciences (such as grammar, philoso-
phy and natural sciences contained in his writings,
which reached the maximum of precision and quality),
as well as this diverse treatise leaves us the opportunity

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

to judge that, in these fields, the Syrians were more
efficient than the Westerners. 451

Furthermore, for his creative ability, originality and
significance of his philological writings concerning the
Holy Scriptures, Baumstark likened him unto
Hieronymus (Jerome) the translator of the Vulgate. He
also thought that the correction of the Latin version of
Eusebius’ Chronicle provided Jacob with a most signifi-
cant document to arrange what is accepted of that
Chronicle. A group of late Roman Catholic writers at-
tempted to associate this great erudite with their faith;
but, later most of them corrected their opinion. 452

110. The Bishop Euthalius

Euthalius was abbot of the Monastery of St. Ousebuna
in the first decade of the eighth century. He was a
learned man, and had written a letter in four large pages
on canonical questions addressed to the ascetic priest
Addai. 455

111. Presbyter Simon, abbot of the Monastery of the
Arabs

Presbyter Simon, an abbot of the Monastery of the
Arabs near Tall Mawzalt, was a man of learning and
independent reasoning. With permission of Timothy,
Abbot of the same monastery, he wrote a letter of about
sixty pages answering the questions propounded by the
priest ascetic Addai. This letter was written after the
death of Mar Jacob of Edessa (about 710). 454

112. Presbyter Simon of Samosata

Presbyter Simon of Samosata, the Psalter, wrote the
life of Mar Theodotus the Ascetic, metropolitan of
Amid, who died around 700, as has been related by his
disciple, the monk priestjoseph, shortly after this time.
Of this useful biography, we found two copies in the
Lives of Saints covering thirty large pages. 455

113. David, bishop of Marash

Michael the Great states that, “David was a distin-
guished and well known man as well as a Doctor. He
died at the beginning of the patriarchate of Elijah, that
is, in the second decade of the eighth century. 456

1 14. The Historian Moses of Inhil

Moses of Nahl or Inhil, a village in Tur Abdin, was a
learned man and an historian. He lived at the close of
the seventh and the beginning of the eighth centuries.
He was mentioned in the biography of Simon Zaytuni,
bishop of Harran (700-734) who stated that, “Moses of
Inhil, a historian of that time, who was known in the
time of Mar Simon, is the one whose fame spread all
over the earth for his miracles and for his kindness,
knowledge, fairness and righteousness.” 457 From this we
understand that Moses either preceded in time or was
contemporary of the historians David ibn Musa and
Yuhanna ibn Samuel. To him (Moses), Mar Jacob of

Edessa wrote a letter as has been mentioned earlier.

115. Elijah I (d. 723)

Elijah was a Malkite, who after reading the writings of
Severus of Antioch, embraced the Syrian Orthodox
faith. He became a monk at the Outer Gubba Monas-
tery. Because of his piety and learning, he was ordained
bishop of Apamea around 69 1 . Later he was elevated to
the See of Antioch in 709. He entered Antioch in great
pomp and was greatly honored by the Umayyad Caliph
al-Walid. Elijah was very scrupulous in attending per-
sonally to the affairs of his congregation. He died in 723
at eighty-two years of age.

Of his writings that have come down to us is a lengthy
letter which he wrote while still a bishop, in reply to Leo,
the Malkite bishop of Harran, apologizing for forsaking
the doctrine of the Two Natures. In this letter, divided
into twelve chapters and covering forty pages, Elijah
refuted the questions raised by Leo and proved with
evidence the soundness of his newly-embraced doc-
trine. He also combined an apology and a disputation,
citing as testimonies famous church Doctors, such as,
Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa,
Ambrose and Cyril. He also cited the Syrian Mar Simon
Zaytuni; and the Malkite Bishops John of Damascus,
George, bishop of Miyafarqin, and Constantine of
Harran. A complete copy of this letter is at the Vatican
Library, with a table of contents containing the titles of
chapters. 458 Another version which is imperfect is in the
British Museum, written on vellum in the Estrangelo
script. 459 Of this version portions of chapter seven as well
as the last four chapters survive. Also at the British
Museum is an extract 460 of the letter of Patriarch Elijah
to the clergy of the village of Ruhin, 461 in the province of
Antioch. In writing it, he was assisted by Mar George,
bishop of the diocese of Ruhin.

1 16. The Monk Tubana

The monk Tubana (the Blessed), was a monk of the
Monastery of Qarqafta, at the village of Magdal in the
Jazira of the Banu Rabia. The monks of this monastery,
as mentioned previously, 462 were highly learned in the
Biblical sciences, especially Biblical philology. After
finishing his studies, Tubana, like Marjacob of Edessa,
devoted his life to the study of the translation and
orthography of the Bible. I Ie lived in the first quarter of
the eighth century.

117. The Deacon Saba (726)

The monk-deacon Saba (the aged) of Ras Ayn was
one of tile prominentmonks of Qarqafta Monastery. He
was also a writer, a jurist and a scholar, following the
same course as Tubana in vocalizing the texts of the
Bible. He wrote excellent works transcribed on the
eighteenth of March, 724 and on the first of April, 726.
The latter work, which contains the Books of Ezekiel
and his companions, was written at the Monastery of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Ouspholis by order of its abbot Constantine, who was
also the bishop of Mardin. These writings reveal the
history of the flourishing of this skill (vocalization)
amongst us (the Syrians) . Saba wasyounger than Tubana,
who used to correct his writings. Both of those distin-
guished men were mentioned by al-Hasan ibn Bahlul,
who praised them and their excellence in his dictio-
nary. As a result of the work of Saba and Tubana and of
the monks who were men of letters and philologists,
who followed their course, there emerged the philo-
logical rules known as the Qarqafi tradition. 463

1 18. Mar George, bishop of the Arabs (d. 725)

Mar George or Gewargi, bishop of the Arabs was a
scholar, a church dignitary, a student of philosophy, an
excellent critic and an authority who was deeply versed
in both poetry and prose. In the prime of his life, he
studied at Qinnesrin under Severus Sabukht shortly
before the latter’s death, and later under other profes-
sors. He acquired all that the brilliant mind could
absorb of the Syriac philological sciences as well as
philosophical, astronomical, theological sciences and
history. He assumed the monastic habit and pursued
godliness. He was ordained a priest and then a bishop
of the Arab tribes of Tay, Uqayl and Tunukh, on the
twenty-first of November, 686. Thus, he came to be
known as the Bishop of the Arabs. The seat of his
diocese was Aqula, which is the town of al-Kufa. He also
had a monastery in which he resided and from which he
administered his diocese. He supervised his diocese in
the best manner for thirty-two years (or forty years)
during which he shown in purity and knowledge, until
he died, a venerable aged man, in February 725 or 726.

Following is a list of his interesting works which have
come down to us and which indicate his proficiency and
eloquence:

1) Commentaries on some Books of the Bible which
were cited by the commentators Patriarch George, the
monk Severus, Bar Salibi and Bar Hebraeus.

2) A short commentary in fifteen pages on the
Sacraments of the Church concerning Faith, Baptism,
the celebration of the Eucharist and the Chrism. A copy
of this commentary is at the British Museum; 464 another
copy is at the library of Seert. 465

3) A supplement of the Book of the Six Days by the
learned Jacob of Edessa in ten pages, translated by
Ryssel into German.

4) Compilation of a large scholion on the homilies of
Gregory Nazianzen.

5) A translation of the Organon of Aristotle, to each
part of which he prefixed an introduction, following
each section with a commentary. Parts of this significant
translation were published by Hoffmann. 467 Ernest
Renan had this to say about this work: “I did not find
among the philosophical commentaries of the Syrian
scholars, a more important and precise treatise than
this work. It deserves to have priority of publication over

all Syriac philosophical writings.” 468 There is an incom-
plete copy of this work in the library of London in two
hundred forty-four pages, transcribed in the eighth or
the ninth century, the text being written in heavy script
and the notes in fine script. 469

6) A chronicle which he mentioned in some of his
letters to John of Atharb, and cited by Elias bar Shinaya
in the second part of his history. 470 This chronicle is lost

7) Six long homilies in the twelve-syllable meter, the
first of which is on the holy Chrism; 471 the second
comprising twelve large pages on the life of Severus of
Antioch, praising his virtues; 472 the third on solitary
monks (in four pages) ; 473 the fourth on the Calendar; 474
the fifth on Palm Sunday, beginning with: “O Son of
God whose glory hath filled the heights and the depths,
fill thou mine soul with praise appropriate of thy
exaltedness and humbleness;” 475 the sixth on the Forty
Martyrs of Se baste, a copy of which is extan t in Mardin; 476
and a charming sughith in heptasyllabic meter on
Abraham and his sacrifice. 477

8) A collection of letters preserved in London, 478 in
one hundred and forty pages, covering theological,
juristic, astronomical, ritualistic and historical prob-
lems which he carefully examined and distinguished
between the important and unimportant problems.
These letters also exhibit the author’s ability, intelli-
gence and erudition. Moreover, they contain a fair,
scientific criticism hardly different from the points of
view of top precise contemporary critics.

The first letter is addressed to Mari, abbot of the
Monastery of Talada in May, 7l7 and contains replies to
twenty-two heretical questions; the second is addressed
to the deacon Barhadhbshabba of the Monastery of
Beth Meluta or Talitha on the ninth ofjanuary, 715, in
reply to a minor question; the third, in reply to a
heretical question, is addressed to the priestand recluse
Yeshu of the village Baneb; 479 the fourth is addressed to
the same priest in July, 714, in reply to nine questions
concerning Aphrahat, the Persian Sage, and refuting
the latter’s allegations that the world would end in the
sixth century; that at the time of death the soul is buried
in a senseless body; concerning the case of an Orthodox
priestgiving absolution toaheretic deacon; concerning
the criticizing of the story of Gregory the Illuminator,
who converted the Armenians; concerning the age of
Simon the Aged; concerning persons who offer up
prayers, or celebrate the Holy Eucharist, with their
heads covered; of newly baptized children, who are
possessed of a devil, etc.; the fifth is addressed to the
stylite priest, John of Atharb injuly, 714, in reply to eight
astronomical questions; the sixth is written to the same
John, explaining what he could not understand of the
letters of Jacob of Edessa (seven saints mentioned by
Jacob) to Cyrissona of Dara, followed by his replies to
the logical questions laid down to him by Thomas the
Sculptor, dated the first of March, 715. In his reply
George mentioned that he knew only Syriac, which

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means he did not know Greek. Syriac and Greek were
the two languages mastered at that time by church
scholars to study philosophy and theology. But this does
not mean that he knew no Arabic - which he undoubt-
edly knew - for nobody would be in charge of the Arabs
without having a knowledge of their tongue; the sev-
enth, addressed to the same John in March, 716, relat-
ing to three astronomical matters; the eighth, to the
same, on a dispute that had arisen at the assembly of
monks and clergy concerning the prayer for the dead
and the confession of sins, 480 (a significant letter, dated
the sixth of March, 718); the ninth, to the same, contain-
ing an exposition of the letter ofjacob of Edessa to the
ascetic priest Abraham. He also discussed in this letter
the various kinds of water and the springs of Tar which
he saw in Persia; the tenth letter, written in December
717 and addressed to the recluse priest Yeshu in reply to
three matters, the second of which concerns the ques-
tion: “Should the holy Sacraments be lifted up in the
absence of a deacon and without the table of the Show
Bread?”; the third of these questions, on the offering of
the Sacraments to baptized children and to the dying
sick; the eleventh letter, to his secretary the priestjacob,
explaining two passages in the book of Gregory
Nazianzen, 481 at the beginning of which he stated that
his Syriac translation was not correct He went on to say
that, “The correct translation is that which has been
explained to me by the patriarch Athanasius II, may
God rest him in peace.” These are the eleven letters
which the London MS contains. As to the twelfth letter,
we have found it in the Book of Canon in Basibrina,
along with five letters addressed to the ascetic priest
Addai in reply to seven questions covering one and a
half pages. There was a second copy of this letter in the
library of Seert which is lost. 482 This library also con-
tained a copy of his third and eleventh letters, addressed
to the priest and recluse Yeshu. The Church, moreover,
has incorporated some of these letters into its canons.
Besides, George undoubtedly wrote many other letters
which were lost The letters of his that are intact are
those written during the last ten years of his life. It is also
quite improbable that an authority and scholar like
George would not be asked for the solution of other
problems in the course of his long tenure as a bishop. 488

George’s style is powerful, solid and fluent; his poetry
is elegant, and most is of the very best quality.

1 19. Sabar Yeshu

Sabar Yeshu, the son of Ram Yeshu, the son of
Sabroy, studied Syriac under is father. Like his father,
he was a brilliant man of letters. At the Monastery of St.
Matthews, he busied himself in correcting, punctuating
and vocalizing many manuscripts with meticulous care.
His name appears on these manuscripts. Later, he left
the monastery and his homeland as well, and went to
one of the villages of the Marga. He also was employed
as a clerk at the Register of Kharaj in the days of al-Hurr

ibn Yusuf, the Governor of Mosul (725-731). 484

120-124. The Philologists of St. Matthew’s Monas-
tery

In his letter to Bishop John, the Rabban (master,
professor) David bar Paul said, “When Ramyeshu and
Gabriel, masters of the languages (Syriac) , came to the
Monastery of St. Matthews, the abbot, seeing that they
were more eloquent than their contemporaries, gave
them cells for their dwelling. Each one of them reached
for a copy of the same book, which is without diacritical
points and vowel signs, and took it to his cell to work on
it by fixing and compared both copies. They found that
they had done exactly the same. They continued in
punctuating and vocalizing many books in this manner.
With them and after them, there also flourished such
eminent men as Yeshu Sabran, Athanos, the Abbot of
the Kukhta Monastery, and Severus bar Zadiqa (the
Righteous) , Elias of Ardi, the monk Ephraim and many
others. These all followed the path of the Rabban
family, who concerned themselves with philological
rules and the punctuation of books.” Undoubtedly,
these masters, who preserved the language, lived till the
beginning, even the first quarter of the eighth century.

125. Mar Simon Zaytuni (d. 734)

Simon, the son of Mundhir, was a native of Habsnas
in Tur Abdin. He studied and became a monk at the
Monastery of Qartamin around 657. In 682 he was
ordained a priest and then the abbot of the same
monastery. He is credited with building many churches
and monasteries in Tur Abdin, which he also provided
with large religious endowments. Among these were
large tracts of vineyards and olive trees which he planted
himself; hence, his nickname the Zaytuni (the Man of
Olives) . He was also helped in carrying out his work by
a treasure he found hidden in a cave, which he devoted
to charitable purposes. In 700, he became the bishop of
the diocese of Harran and proved to be one of the best
bishops of his time. He also established a school at
Habsnas. In 726 he attended the council ofManazgird. 485
He died on the first of June, 734, which is also the day
of his commemoration by the Church.

In addition to his asceticism, piety and godliness, he
was a man of learning. He composed many polemical
books, against the Malkite opponents. 486 According to
the patriarch Elijah, he also wrote a treatise addressed
to one of the Malkites, Constantine, bishop of Harran 487
His biography was written by the monkjob of Manimim.

126. Constantine, bishop of Edessa (d. 735)

Constantine was the most famous disciple ofjacob of

Edessa. With Jacob, he went to the Monastery of
Ousebuna, where he remained in his company for a
long time. In 699, he was ordained Metropolitan of
Bithyina byjulian III. However, he probably did not go
there, and, therefore, was sent to the diocese of Hims.

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

After the death of his master (Jacob) , he was transferred
by the Patriarch Elijah I, in 709, to the diocese of Edessa,
which he administered for twenty-six years. In knowl-
edge and virtue, he was in the vanguard of the bishops
of his time. In 726, with four other bishops, he attended
the Council of Manazgird, which was held between the
Syrians and the Armenians. He died in 735. 488

Constantine was very energetic in his pursuit of
knowledge. He suggested thathis learned master (Jacob
of Edessa) write two books: The First Cause and The Six
Days of the Creation. At the beginning of the second
book, 489 the reader finds three questions laid down
before Jacob, which demonstrate Constantine’s high
intelligence, wide perception and deep investigation.
Thus, Constantine became the incentive impelling that
erudite to produce these two works as well as the replies
to twenty-eight questions which have been formerly
mentioned. He also composed metrical discourses col-
lected in an anthology, which until the sixteenth cen-
tury was preserved at the library of St. Abraham’s Mon-
astery in Midyat. It was mentioned in the index of the
old and valuable manuscript with this statement: “The
anthology of the metrical discourses composed by the
Rabban (master or professor), Constantine, metropoli-
tan of Edessa at the Monastery of Mar Abraham in
Midyat.” 490 It is established that this work belongs to
Constantine I and not to his successor Constantine II, a
graduate of Qinnesrin, of whom nothing is known
except his period of bishophood (845-8 78). 491

127. John the Stylite of Atharb (d. 738)

John, a stylite ascetic and a priest at the Monastery of
al-Atharb near Aleppo, was greatly interested in investi-
gation and knowledge. He came to know Jacob of
Edessa in the latter’s late life and began corresponding
with him, investigating historical and ritualistic ques-
tions and asking him juristic opinions regarding no less
than one hundred legal matters. He received satisfying
answers from him. He also corresponded with George,
bishop of the Arabs after Jacob’s death. He died in 738.

(John), having attained a great knowledge of theo-
logical science, wrote an eloquent and significant trea-
tise on the human soul for the Orthodox Arab Syrian
clergy according to the views of the Church scholars. It
is divided into six chapters, covering twenty-two large
pages. This treatise was greatly admired byjohn of Dara,
who incorporated it into his Treatiseon theSouL In 1928,
we read this treatise, which is extant in only one copy, in
the library of Boston in the United States. 492 He also
wrote a short chronography which was lost except for a
few citations by Michael the Great. 495 In addition, he
wrote a letter, in eight pages, between 726 and 737, in
reply to the priest Daniel of Tay, discussing the theme
of the prophecy ofjacob: “The scepter shall not depart
from Judah,” etc., 494 in which he cited the opinions of
some ancient Doctors like Severus Sabukht, the great
philosopher Jacob of Edessa and George, bishop of the

Arabs. 495 John was cited by Bar Salibi in his treatise on
Paradise. 496

128. Daniel bar Moses

Daniel bar Moses of Tur Abdin who lived in the first
half of the eighth century is the grandfather (on the
mother’s side) of the patriarch Dionysius ofTall Mahre.
He wrote a short chronicle (more like an ecclesiastical
history), cited by both Dionysius his grandson and by
Elias bar Shinaya. 497 What remained of this chronicle
were only the events of the years 739, 745 and 748,
incorporated in the annals of Dionysius. 498

129. John bar Samuel

John was also a Syrian chronicler who lived in the
middle of the eighth century in some parts of the
country south of the Euphrates. Around 746, he wrote
a chronicle utilizing the chronicle of John of Atharb.
The chronicle of John bar Samuel was mentioned by
Dionysius ofTall Mahre 499 and cited by the monk of
Zuqnin, Theopharu the Greek and Michael the Great
Both chronicles of the two Johns are lost.

1 30. Phocas of Edessa

Phocas bar Sergius of Edessa and resident of Saruj,
was an eminent and brilliant layman, possessing profi-
ciency in both Greek and the Syriac language. He wrote
a useful commentary on the test of the book ascribed to
Dionysius the Areopagite, which he wrote between 720
and 750. In the introduction to this commentary Phocas
said: “I, the humble Phocas, have dedicated to the Holy
Trinity this work of mine which does not correspond
with its majesty. This work is but the effort of the
humble author. I have spent a period of a year amidst
a continuous engagement in worldly affairs for its
completion. I have never had any assistance regarding
its language or its copying. But, by the help and care of
God, I carried all the burdens of commenting on the
text and its notes, writing them on tablest and then
transferring them to paper. Therefore, I do ask the
prayers of everyone who finds enjoyment in spiritual
subjects. ”Itappears, from the old manuscript of Mosul 500
dated 766, that Phocas re-translated many chapters of
this work and subsequently, the translation was as-
cribed to him, as is evident from the letters of the
Catholicos Timothy to the monk Sergius. 474 These
letters also indicate that he lived in the middle of the
eighth century.

131. John II, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monas-
tery

John II, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monastery,
who attended the Council of Talla in 752, was a man of
letters. He had composed a beautifully worded liturgy
beginning with: “Grant us, O Lord, to love thee com-
pletely and also to love one another.” Of this liturgy we
have a copy (half of which is imperfect) transcribed

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

from the copy of Diyarbakr. It was an error to consider
the author of this liturgy a thirteenth century writer, for
no metropolitan of this monastery, bearing this name
existed at that time. This fact is proof enough without
considering the character of the composition.

132. Iyawannis I, (John) (d. 754)

Iyawannis became a monk and studied at the Monas-
tery of Ousebuna or at Zuqnin (according to another
source). He was ordained metropolitan of Hawran, 501
and in 737 was elevated to the See of Antioch. When the
(Umayyad) Caliph Marwan II, visited Hawran, the patri-
arch Iyawannis came to him with fifty camels carrying
presents. The King greatly honored him and provided
him with a diploma of authorization.

Iyawannis died in 754, a very aged man. In the late
period of his life he wrote a Synodical letter to the
bishops who assembled at Talla in 752, prescribing that
it be announced in all the churches. This letter, which
was incorporated by Michael the Great into his
chronicle, 502 exhibits the excellence of Iyawannis, his

humility and zeal for the Church, as well as his happi-
ness because of the peace of the Church.

133. Elias, bishop of Sinjar (758)

Elias, bishop of Sinjar J 77 was an able scholar and a
sage who wrote a commentary on the metrical dis-
courses of Gregory Nazianzen. An anecdote concern-
ing him relates that he was arbitrarily dismissed from his
office by Athanasius al-Naal, who usurped the See of
Antioch, despite the fact that Elias was one of the
Eastern bishops under the jurisdiction of the
Maphrian. Athanasius appointed in his place the
intruding bishop, Yeshu Bakr. Later, Elias returned
to his diocese and attended the Council of Manbij
(or Mabug) in 758.

John of Dara cited him in chapter four of the first
treatises of his Paradise, and quoted his statement that:
“The tree of knowledge of good and evil was a real tree.
It was made to be a divine symbol for Adam and Eve to
partake of its fruit in the proper time.” He (John) also
called him the “theological interpreter.” 505

120

CHAPTER TWO
Biographies of Scholars and
Writers of the Second Period

134. Cyriacus, metropolitan of Tur Abdin (770)

Cyriacus was a bishop of Sijistan. Around 749, he

created a rift in the Church, motivated by his ambition
to occupy the vacant churches of Tur Abdin. He at-
tempted to achieve his aim through the influence of the
Caliph, Marwan II, known as theja ’da. By his resource-
fulness, Cyriacus, together with a willful teacher named
Bar Salta of Ras Ayn, fabricated a treatise which they
ascribed to the Apocalypse of Enoch. Incorporated in it
were positive references to the caliphate of Marwan, his
son and their successors. The Caliph (Marwan) was
deceived by this treatise and by one of his astrologers.
Cyriacus, however, gained nothing except disappoint-
mentand excommunication by the patriarch Iyawannis.
On repenting he gained absolution. Finally, he was
given the administration of part of the diocese of Tur
Abdin. 1

Cyriacus was still living in 770. 2 He was mentioned by
Bar Salibi, in the treatise on the perceptible paradise of
his Book of Theology. Bar Salibi said “Jacob ofEdessa.John
the Stylite and Cyriacus, bishop of Tur Abdin envisaged
that Paradise was spiritual.” 5 Hence, we know that the
man was a writer, but we do not know what he wrote.

135. The Monk Lazarus of Beth Qandasa (773)

The Rabban Lazarus of Beth Qandasa was a noble

and virtuous monk in the holy mountain of Edessa. He
was also a doctor of theology: a professor exploring the
infinitesimal sciences of dogma, and a leading critic.
Moreover, he ran a school which produces pupils like
George of Beth Neqe (or from the village Banqa) and
the monk priest Jacob of Beth Jonathan of Narsibad.

On the mountain of Edessa, in the course of his
teaching the science of dogmatic criticism as well as the
critical method of interpreting the Pauline epistles, he
wrote a commentary on the following epistles around
773: to the Galatians, Second Thessalonians, Second
Timothy and to the Hebrews. The commentary on the
epistles is taken from Chrysostom. Nevertheless, this
commentary appears to be compact and fluent, com-
prehending the meanings of the total expounded verses.
Of this commentary there is a single copy, in London, 4

completed shortly before the tenth century in a rough
scriptwhich is almost fading. Lazarus also hasascholion
showing that, according to Dionysius the Areopagite,
“The order of Seraphs was the highest in the celestial
Hierarchy. ” Of this scholion there are two copies, one in
Jerusalem, 5 and the other in London.® To him, Wright
and Duval ascribed a commentary on the Gospels of St
John and of SL Mark, 7 with whom Baumstark 8 correctly
disagrees as we have personally ascertained. In fact, this
lengthy commentary whose style is good, was compiled
in a scientifically adequate method, by a Malkite writer
ofHarran named al-Harith bar Sisin (Sisan) ofSanbat, 9
who transcribed the commentary on the previously
mentioned epistles, citing the Doctors, particularly,
Jacob of Saruj, and sometimes quoting St. Ephraim,
Cyril, Theodorus and adding his own observations. Of
this commentary there is a single copy, in the British
Museum. 10 That this al-Harith was of the Malkite creed
is attested by Masudi in Muruj al-Dhahab {Vol. 2, p. 378) .
He said, “A Christian Malkite man from the citizens of
Harran known as al-Harith ibn Sanbastat [sic, the cor-
rect name is what we have mentioned], related to the
Sabeans ofHarran things concerning their ofFering of
sacrifices ... which we abstained from mentioning to
avoid lengthiness.” 11

136. The Historian Monk of Zuqnin (775)

In 775, a distinguished monk from the monastery of
Zuqnin, near Amid, wrote a large chronicle in two
volumes, beginning from the creation until his own
time. He cited the ancient authorities to the time of
John of Asia (John of Ephesus) who died in 587. After
John ’s death he recorded fragmentary chronicles. How-
ever, he was not so precise in determining the dates of
years. As he brought down his chronicle closer to his
own time, he elaborated on the religious and civil events
and on natural catastrophes. He gave a detailed account
of the even ts relating to the last days of the U mayyad and
the beginning of the Abbasid states until the days of al-
Mahdi. In fact, hewasthe only historian whomentioned
events which could not be found in any other history, be
it Syriac, Greek or Arabic. In his chronicle, he uncov-
ered the calamities which befell the inhabitants of the
Jazira, particularly, the disturbances of peace under
kings and their governors. These events covered two-
hundred pages of his chronicle. He wrote his chronicles,
it seems, at the request of the Chorepiscopus George of
Amid, Othelius his Father Superior, the periodeutes
Lazarus, and Anastasius and the rest of the monks. Book
four, i.e., half of the second volume of this chronicle,
was published in French by Rev. Jean Chabot in 1895,
but he ascribed it to Dionysius of Tall Mahre, patriarch
of Antioch (d. 845). He used for evidence an old copy
in the Vatican, 12 transcribed in 932; in the same year it
was also moved to the monastery of the Syrians (in
Egypt). This is the copy concerning whose author
Assemani was mistaken. It would have been better for

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

him and those citing him later to know that the style of
Dionysius of Tall Mahre is by no means the same as the
style of this monk, which is not free from imperfection,
mistakes and foreign phrases. Moreover, this monk’s
style was not up to the standard of eloquent authors.
Besides, he confused the sequence of years. In addition,
DionysiusofTallMahrewasnotgraduatedfromZuqnin,
but Qinnesrin, and he did not bring down his annals to
the year 775, but to 843. Finally, the Orientalists recog-
nized that this author was anonymous. Francois Nau was
also mistaken in regarding Yeshu the Stylite as the
author of this Chronicle. Between 1927 and 1933,
Chabot published these chronicles in two volumes,
consisting of 732 large pages under the title Anonymous
History. He also translated it into Latin.

137. The Translators of Canons (hymns)

It was mentioned before 13 that Jacob of Edessa com-
posed the hymns known as the canons. Most of these
canons, particularly those composed by Andrew of
Crete, Cosmas andjohn of Damascus for the cycle of the
whole year were translated from Greek into Syriac by
proficient scholars and servants, as mentioned by the
Cambridge MS 624. 14 It is, therefore, probable that
these scholars undertook the translation of these can-
ons in the second half of the eighth century. Some of
these scholars were probably graduated from the school
of theMountain ofEdessain the daysofRabban Lazarus
of Beth Qandasa.

138. Mar George I, patriarch of Antioch (d. 790)

George is one of the most famous patriarchs of

Antioch, distinguished in his age for his knowledge,
understanding, literary productions and sober opin-
ions. Moreover, he was amiable, humble and patient in
overcoming hardships. He was born at Baltan nearjosya
in the province of Hims, and studied and mastered
Syriac and Greek as well as philology, theology and
jurisprudence at Qinnesrin. There he was ordained a
deacon and led an ascetic and pious life. He also
corresponded with Theodore, bishop of Samosata, who
predicted that God would entrust him with a high
position in his church.

Theodore also encouraged him to be faithful to his
monastery. As George was, beside his outstanding learn-
ing, a man of virtue and noble character, he was chosen
by the Holy Council to ascend the Apostolic See of
Antioch. He was consecrated a patriarch in 758. Soon
after his consecration, he had to put up with envious
and malignant bishops like John, bishop of Callinicus
and David, bishop of Dara and others, assisted by a
wicked and intriguing monk who yielded to them.
Consequently, bothjohn and David usurped the See of
Antioch. In 766 he suffered in prison, went to Baghdad
and for nine years he and other captives had to bear with
patience the injustice of Abujafar al-Mausur, the stingy
and greedy Abbasid Caliph. Although al-Mausur was

aware of the innocence of the patriarch, he hoped that
he would discover golden treasures through false
achieved knowledge. With him was also imprisoned the
patriarch of the Malkites and the Nestorian Catholicos.
They were all released after the death of Abu Jafar in
775. He was honored and received by the Church as if
he were an angel descending from heaven. Immedi-
ately, he began gathering scattered flocks and repairing
the damage which had befallen the church. He jour-
neyed to Antioch where, in the same year, he ordained
ten bishops. In 785, he held a synod at Kafr Nabu near
Saruj, in which he enacted twenty-two canons, preceded
by auniversal letter. He administered the Church wisely
until his death on the first of December, 790. He was
buried in the Monastery of Mar Barsoum in Melitene
and is commemorated by the Church on the seventh
day of the same month.

Mar George wrote an eloquent commentary in two
volumes on the Gospel of St. Matthew, in which he cited
Ignatius, Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea, Gregory of
Nyssa, Chrysostom, Jacob of Saruj, PhiloxenusofMabug,
Severus of Antioch and George, bishop of the Arabs.
There is one old copy 15 extant of this commentary, in
almost500 pages, written on vellum and imperfect from
the beginning until chapter forty-seven. Also written by
him was a distinguished letter, mentioned by Michael
the Great, 16 addressed to Guriyya, the deacon of Beth
Naar, avillage in Lebanon, on the phrase, “we break the
heavenly bread.”

He wrote poetry, characterized by clarity and charm.
During his imprisonmen t, he composed beautiful hymns
and metrical discourses, some of which, as we believe,
were added to the Church services. Of these hymns, we
found one to the tune of “Rise up, O Paul,” in which he
laments his condition. It goes like this: “May it do me
much good, if I am informed that Babylon, city of the
giants, has fallen and that the gates ofprisons have been
opened in order to go out victorious like Peter, 17 and
like Zachariah sing with delight: ‘Behold, the sun shines
over the blind from on high’. 18 O, daughters of Zion,
weep for Daniel, and O, monasteries weep for George.”

1 39. The Monk Theodosius (806 )

In the Zafaran manuscript transcribed in the year
1000, there are contained the philological rules for the
Holy Bible as well as the writings of Doctors. In the
appendix added to it at the end of the twelfth century, 19
the monk Theodosius is described as “the skillful
teacher.” We also know from these sources that he was
engaged in the interfunction of the unfamiliar phrases
in the poems of St. Ephraim, as is mentioned by the
large Register preserved at the great church of Melitene
and transcribed by the patriarchjohn bar Shushan. His
name is also mentioned by the table containing the
names of the Syrian Doctors in the handwriting of Isaac
the Shaved, 20 Metropolitan of Cyprus. Most probably
this Theodosius is the monk scribe from the Pillar

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

monastery, who beautifully transcribed The Divine Provi-
dence by Patriarch Cyriacus in 806, 21 if it was not tran-
scribed by another scribe of the same name in Melitene
around the tenth century.

140. Iliyya (Elijah) of Harr an

Elijah was a native of Harran, but studied and be-
came a monk at the Monastery of Qinnesrin. He was
ordained a priest and then bishop of Salamya, shortly
before the year 790. One of his writings is a treatise on
the Holy Eucharist, divided into four chaptersin twenty-
five large pages, and addressed to Dionysius the
Edessene, of the Monastery of Qinnesrin (later Dionysius
of Tall Mahre, patriarch of Antioch) . 22 In this treatise he
discussed the disputation over the phrase “let us break
the heavenly bread.” Assemani, citing Bar Salibi in his
commentary on the Gospels, states that “Elijah com-
piled a diatessaron (harmonized) Gospel in the same
manner as Ammonius, but it has not been found to this
day. In this work, he also criticized some of the canons
of the Gospels by Eusebius of Caesarea, showing their
mistakes. He was correct in his criticism.” 25 However,
the published copies of this commentary, and also the
two copies in our library do not include this quotation.

141. Theodoras bar Zarudi

The teacher Theodoras bar Zarudi of Edessa was a
spiritual philosopher. He wrote commentaries on the
(pseudo) book of Dionysius the Areopagite, according
to the British Museum MS 22370, transcribed in the
middle of the fourteenth century. These commentar-
ies, however, are not found in the two MSS of Mosul,
dated 766, and the MSofJerusalem, dated 887. Theodore
is thought to have lived at the close of the eighth and the
beginning of the ninth centuries.

142. Simon bar Amraya (d. 815)

According to one source, Simon bar Amraya was a
native ofTakrit, but according to Bar Hebraeus, a native
of the village of Badiya, he studied and became a monk
at the Monastery of the Pillar. He also became a disciple
of Patriarch Cyriacus, who ordained him a maphrain of
Takrit in 806; but he was dismissed from office around
813. He composed metrical discourses, especially one
in praise of the Apostle Thomas, a copy of which is
extant in Seert 25 He died in 815.

143. The Anba David bar Paul of Beth Rabban

A proficient writer with a versatile style and an elo-
quent poet, he could be considered a top-rating poet,
had he not used Greek terms.

David was bom at Beth Shahaq in the province of
Nineveh, to the family of Beth Rabban (the Master),
which was dedicated to learning. He was the descendan t
of Beth Sabroy, the son of Abraham, David’s great-
grandfather. At Beth Shahaq, he studied under Moses,
the teacher at its great church (a grandfather of Moses

bar Kifa), 25 mastering the Syriac language and becom-
ing one of its authorities and a distinguished man of
letters. Then he entered the Monastery of Khanushia,
near Sinjar, where he studied Greek. Also, he became
deeply versed in theological science, which was taught
in the great monasteries, and he was elevated to the
dignity of priesthood. He is also said to have left his
monastery with his disciple Zachariah and forty monks
because ofa misunderstanding between them andjohn
their bishop. They settled in a monastery west of the
Euphrates. But after one year and eight months, that is,
in 780 or shortly after it, they returned to their monas-
tery. 26 David brought back with him the anthems of
Severas of Antioch, which he had learned during that
period and inserted about one hundred and eighty
anthems into the Eastern Order. Then he settled in the
Monastery of Mar Sergius on the Barren Mountain and
became its abbot He achieved fame for his virtue and
honesty. Men of learning and letters corresponded with
him. Itseems thathe lived longand most probably died
in the second decade of the ninth century, as evidenced
by his correspondence with Thomas the Stylite, who was
living in 837. 27 Bar Salibi’s statemen t that he was a friend
of Bar Kifa or his disciple does not seem to be correct,
even if it is supposed that David lived long; for Moses bar
Kifa was born in 813 (or in 833, according to a different
source). However, despite the fact that old chronicles
do not mention him, contemporary scholars thought
him to belong to the thirteenth century, 28 until his
anthology was found. Moreover, Assemani and later
writers who quoted him, were mistaken in attributing to
him the episcopal dignity, claiming that Bar Hebraeus
in his Awsar Roze ( The Storehouse of Secrets ) , sometimes
calls him a monk and at other times a bishop. In fact, this
book does not mention him at all as a bishop. However,
he was counted in the Book of Life (the Mosul copy)
among the saints who were monks. 29

What remains to us of his writing is a collection of
elegant phrases as well as metrical letters in the three
meters. There is a single medium-sized copy of these
letters in the Zafaran library, 50 consisting of two hun-
dred and eighteen pages, imperfect at the beginning
and at the end, transcribed at the beginning of the
fourteenth century. It contains sixty-six letters, of which
seventy-three were exchanged between him and con-
temporary writers. The rest of these letters consists of
metrical discourses, copies of letters to unknown ad-
dressees and eight letters addressed to him. These
letters differ in theme and purpose as follows:

1. Letters of affection, such as his letter No. 2,
addressed to the priest Sumaqa (The writing of this
letter was shared by David’s disciple Zachariah). He
wrote letter No. 3 to the stylite ascetic priest Thomas in
Benshams. Letter No. 5 is on true love in reply to the
letter of the deacon Jonah; letter No. 17, to the bishop
John, with a praise of his traits; letter No. 35 to John,
bishop of Harran; letter No. 47 to the priest Athanas;

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

letter No. 48 to Phocas the Chief Priest of Harran.

2. Philological letters such as letter No. 4 addressed
to Hannan Yeshu, in which he expounded phrases
alphabetically arranged; letter No. 58 on the division of
the Syriac alphabet; letter No. 14 on the bishopjohn on
the diacritical points used in the Holy Scriptures; a
letter on philological rules which is the best of his
letters. 31

3. Expository letters, such as his letter No. 6, ad-
dressed to a scholar, stating that the book of Ecclesiastes
was not written by Solomon but by Judas Maccabeus,
and his brothers in the third century B.C.; letter No. 7,
describing the Tabernacle and praising the prophet
Moses as well as Greek philosophers, particularly
Aristotle; letter No. 8, addressed to his disciple Zachariah
on a question relating to the Ten Commandments;
letterNo. 49 to Phocas, the chief priest of Harran on the
Book of Numbers; letterNo. 50, containing a discourse
in the twelve-syllable verse on commentary on some
topics from the Old Testament, particularly those refer-
ring to the coming of Christ and the fall of the Jews;
letter No. 59 addressed to George on the Ten Virgins;
letter No. 62 containing a reply to someone asking why
the shepherds were the first to see Christ; letter No. 65
to Zachariah, containing an exposition of some ques-
tions.

4. Letters on dogma, such as his letter No. 1 0, consist-
ing of a discourse in the twelve-syllabic verse on the
qualities of the Holy Trinity; letter No. 13 to the priest
Mar Aba, explaining the Incarnation of Christ and
declaring his Orthodox faith; letter No. 43, addressed
to the periodeutes priest Yeshu on the same subject.

5. Ethical letters, such as his letter No ?? in the
heptasyllabic meter, addressed to a female disciple and
containing instruction; letter No. 33 addressed to a
nun, containing advice on how to carry the burdens of
monasticism appropriately; letters No. 40 and 42, con-
taining counsels and reproaches of the rich; letter No.
45 to the deacon John, containing advice; letter No. 46
addressed to the monk-priestjohn on the delight in the
love of Jesus Christ; letter No. 51 to a rich priest named
Habib; letter No. 52 to a priest on negligence; letters
No. 53, 54 and 56, on pride, arrogance and conceit;
letter No. 55, in the form of a dialogue between the olive
tree and the rest of trees; letter No. 57, in the form of a
dialogue between the vine and the cedar tree.

6. Social letters, such as his letter No. 41 in the
heptasyllabic meter, describing the death of the rich,
and stating that the funeral of a righteous man is
shunned by everybody, whereas the funerals of wealthy
men are attended by multitudes of people. In them the
priest exaggerates the singing of hymns, metrical dis-
courses and songs for the sake of gold; and letter No. 1 1
on the despotic ruler.

7. Ascetical letters, such as his pleasant letter No. 15,
in which he calls himself to repentance; letter No. 18,
addressed to the abbot Elias in which he blames himself

and asks his assistance to reform himself; letter No. 19
to a noble adviser and priest named Constantine, which
he wrote while still in the prime of youth. This is indeed
a splendid letter.

8. Eight letters, some of which he was asked to write,
such as letter No. 23, from the abbot of a monastery
addressed to the chief priest of Takrit, the clergy and
the congregation; letterNo. 24, which is a general letter
from the metropolitan of a diocese to the clergy and
congregation, enjoining them to help a poor fellow;
letter No. 25, from a bishop to another bishop; letter
No. 26, containing a protest against a bishop; letter No.
27, addressed to monks; letter No. 34, from the abbots
of the monasteries of the Arabs and Sergius to the abbot
and monks of St. Matthew’s monastery; letter No. 38,
from the stylite monk John to one Thomas on the
condition of man after Adam’s fall and Christ’s remedy
of our condition; letter No. 39, which he wrote for the
monk John in praise of John the Stylite. The two last
letters are composed in the heptasyllabic meter.

9. Seven letters were sent to him. They are: letterNo.
22, from a priest; letter No. 29, from Thomas the Stylite;
letters No. 30 and 31, from one Abraham in which he
calls him “The Flower of the Earth” and “The Lily of
Europa” (of the East); letter No. 32, which is anony-
mous; letter No. 37, from someone to a bishop or a
teacher monk; letter No. 44, in the heptasyllabic meter,
fromjohn to David bar Paul, asking him to send him the
collection of his letters.

10. Letters written on different subjects, such as
letter No. 9, on what belongs and what does not belong
to nature; letterNo. 16, to the bishopjohn on thoughts;
letter No. 20, to the same, containing a comparison
between the Syriac and Greek alphabetical calculations,
and indicating that Greek scholars have deliberately
overlooked the Syriac scholars; letter No. 21 to a physi-
cian, informing him of the abbot’s sickness; letter No.
36 on peace; letterNo. 63 on the peace of Christ; letter
No. 61 in the form of a metrical discourse on those who
cite Biblical verses for the practice of magic; letter No.
66 on the seven regions. 32

David bar Paul also composed a lengthy but pleasant
heptasyllabic discourse in twenty-eight pages on the
trees, their fruits, kinds and qualities; 33 a metrical letter
to some Nestorians 3 * and also a dodecasyllabic dis-
course. Ascribed to him are twenty-two splendid
dodecasyllabic discourses on the love of wisdom and
knowledge. 35 The first consists of a letter “A” only, and
the second, of the letter “B,” etc. 36 going through all
twenty-two letters of the Syriac alphabet. However, this
kind of composition was not known before the thir-
teenth century. He has also written two philological
commentaries; one on the mutable letters 37 and the
second on how to interpunctuate and preserve Syriac.

144. Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch (d. 817)

A most distinguished Antiochian Father, in his life,

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

piety, knowledge and understanding, Cyriacus was bom
and raised atTakrit He received his education and also
became a monk at the Monastery of the Pillar near al-
Raqqa (Callinicus) where he acquired a great deal of
theological science, and practised the monastic life. He
was a man of many virtues and good character, except
that he was somewhat hot-tempered. He was elected a
patriarch by the Holy Synod and was consecrated in 793.
He held five Synods, one in Beth Batin in 794, in which
he issued forty canons and made them public in a
universal letter. 58 The second was held at the Monastery
of Nawawis in the province of Qinnesrin in 797 or 798
to reconcile the phantasiastjulianists and add them to
the Church, but his efforts were blocked by some envi-
ous and fanatic bishops. 59 The third was at Beth Gabrin
in 808, in which he excommunicated the monks of the
Gubba monastery. The fourth was at Harran in 81 3 and
the fifth, at Mosul in 81 7. 40 Because of his determination
and strictures in enforcing laws and regulations, he
suffered calamities from malicious clergy and laymen
who violated them. He administered the Holy See for
twenty-fouryears, during which time he ordained eighty-
six metropolitans and bishops. He died in Mosul on the
sixteenth of August, 817 and was buried in Takrit and
was commemorated by the Church.

Michael the Great said: “Patriarch Cyriacus wrote a
book on theological teaching as well as a magnificent
collection of letters.” 41 By the first work, Michael meant
the book on Divine Providence, consisting of three vol-
umes and divided into ninety-eight treatises. What re-
mained of this book is the third volume, 42 and twenty-
two treatises, some of whose chapters are wanting. Two
of these treatises he wrote at the request of Theodosius,
Bishop ofSeleucia, and Walid and Yeshu ofTirminaz, in
the province of Cyrrhus. It is a noble book, testifying to
the author’s wide knowledge of the Bible and the
writings of the church scholars. Moreover, it is written
in a smooth and excellent style, free from foreign terms.

Cyriacus also wrote ten letters in reply to the ques-
tions propounded to him by the said Yeshu, deacon of
Tarmanaz. These were added to his book. 45 He enacted
seventy-two canons in the Synods of Beth Batin and
Harran and instituted a pledge of allegiance consisting
of six pages, to be recited by the candidates for high
ranks of priesthood before their ordination. 44 He has
also three eloquent discourses consisting of seven pages;
in the first he praised the virtues of Severus of Antioch.
Itbegins with, “The clear and pure mirror which reflects
the wonderful merits of St. Severus, requires a clear
mind with tremendous imagination to look through
it” 45 The second discourse on the Sunday of the priests
begins with, “When we remember the chief priests and
priests of the Orthodox faith, who departed from this
transient world.” 46 The third discourse on the “vineyard
of the beloved,” mentioned by the prophet Isaiah, 47
begins with: “When our Savior spoke to the descendants
of Israel by parables and symbols.” 48 He also wrote a

homily on virginity 49 and drew up a liturgy beginning
with, “O, eternal and everlasting Lord,” consisting of
five pages, 50 and a creed composed by him and Gabriel,
head of the Julianists. 51 This collection of his letters,
however, is lost, and of his synodical epistles, only two
survive; one addressed to John IV and one to Mark III,
patriarch of Alexandria, in an imperfect Arabic transla-
tion. 52

145. The Doctor Athanos (818)

Athanus, a chaste priest, commentator and Doctor,
was first known in 818. According to Michael the Great
and Bar Hebraeus, some of the Father members of the
Synod of Callinicus nominated him for the patriarchal
See in that year (81 8) . It seems that he was a teacher at
one of thegreatmonastic schools. Ofhis writing we have
read a four-page tract, which he wrote as an introduc-
tion to the pseudo-book of Dionysius the Areopagite. In
this tract entitled “A Necessary Subject Preceding the
Book of St. Dionysius, Written for the Benefit (of Oth-
ers) the Chaste Priest and Teacher Mar Athanos,” 55 the
author discusses briefly the three topics which it con-
tains: the headship of priesthood, the speech on theol-
ogy and the letters. Despite its brevity, this tract shows
his deep knowledge of philosophy and theology. May
God reward him.

146. The Chronicler of Qartamin (819)

This chronicler was a brilliant monk of polished
style, who flourished at Qartamin, but his name is
unknown. In 819, he wrote a brief, exact and useful
chronicle, tabulated according to the years from the
time of Christ the Lord until the said year, consisting of
nineteen pages. It contains, particularly, parts of the
chronicles of the Monastery of Qartamin and its abbot,
which could not be found in other sources. We found
this chronicle in 191 1 in the valuable collection of
canons at Basibrina and had it published in Paris. 54 It
was also translated into Latin by Rev. Chabot.

147. Habib Abu Raita of Takrit (828)

According to Michael the Great, citing Dionysius of

Tall Mahre, Habib ibn Khadama Abu Raita of Takrit was
a layman having wide knowledge of logic and philoso-
phy. He was a contemporary of Nonnus of Nisibin and
had participated in the complaint against Philexenus,
metropolitan of Nisibin to the patriarch in 828. Ofhis
writing we found Arabic theological treatises, which are
the oldest surviving 55 writing by our Syrian scholars in
this language. These are a treatise on the Holy Trinity,
a treatise confirming the Trisagion and a treatise to the
citizens of al-Bahrayn. The two Coptic writers, al-
Mutaman ibn Isaac ibn al-Assal and the priest Abu al-
Barakat ibn Kabar of the thirteenth and the fourteenth
centuries have erroneously attributed to him the epis-
copate of Takrit. This error was repeated by later schol-
ars. 56 No doubt Abu Raita knew Syriac literature al-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

though nothing of his writing in Syriac has survived.

148. Lazarus ibn al-Ajuz (Sobto) (829)

Basilius Lazarus ibn al-Ajuz (“old woman”), and his
brother, the priest Taba (“the good”) entered the
Monastery of Mar John Qurdis in Dara, 57 where they
studied and became monks. Lazarus was ordained Met-
ropolitan of Baghdad by the Maphrian of the East to
succeed the bishop Habib, much later than the year
818. In some manuscripts he is also called “Philoxenus”
According to Dionysius of Tall Mahre, Lazarus was,
despite his profound knowledge of Syriac, theology and
poetry, harsh and stubborn. Consequently, hatred de-
veloped between him and the majority of his congrega-
tion, which forced the patriarch Dionysius to dismiss
him and ordain the bishop John in his place in March,
829. After this date nothing, not even the year of his
death is known.

Lazarus wrote a significant work on “The Revision of
the Celebration of the Holy Eucharist” in three chap-
ters, covering thirty-one pages in which he criticized
ritualistic customs and supplicatory prayers which had
been added to the Church service and to the Sacerdotal
of the priests, by men of little experience. 58 He also
wrote an exposition of the ritual office of Baptism in
four pages 59 and compiled a good liturgy, beginning
with “O, Lord who art the ocean of safety,” consisting of
eighteen pages 80 and an eloquent twelve-syllabic dis-
course on the Holy Chrism, consisting of twenty-eight
pages. This liturgy was incorporated into the Eastern
rite. 61 He is quoted by Bar Hebraeus as having stated
“that Greek canons or anthems have been incorporated
intoour Syrian rituals.” 62 There is no doubt that Lazarus
had written a lengthy treatise on this subject, but it did
not survive.

149. Theodosius, metropolitan of Edessa (832)

The learned Theodosius is the brother of the patri-
arch Dionysius of Tall Mahre, and probably older than
he. He was bom at Tall Mahre. He studied at the
Monastery of Qinnesrin the origins of Syriac and Greek
literature, as well as philosophy and theology. He also
acquired sufficient proficiency in the Arabic language.
Then he became a monk and was elevated to the office
of priesthood before 802. He began to be well-known
for his virtues and was ordained a bishop of Edessa
around 813. In 825, he journeyed with his brother to
Egypt to complain to the Amir Abd Allah ibn Tahir
against his brother Muhammad, who had unjusdy de-
stroyed the churches in his diocese. The Amir was
hospitable to them and wasjust in their case. Theodosius
died in 832. He was lauded by his friend, the monk
Anton ofTakritwho called him “The Lover of Sciences
and Languages.” 65

Theodosius wrote a short ecclesiastical history, be-
ginning from 754 to 81 2, which was cited and used by his
brother. 64 According to Bar Hebraeus he also translated

the poems of Gregory Nazianzen, from Greek into
Syriac. 65 Of these, we found in the Vatican a metrical
homily, in two pages, on the miracles performed by the
prophets Elijah and Elisha. 66 He began the translation
of this homily in June, 802, and finished it in December
of the same year, while still a priest at the Church of
Edessa. He also rendered into Syriac in six long pages
twenty-five questions submitted to Theodosius, patri-
arch of Alexandria in 820 and another twelve questions,
in four pages, submitted by the monk to the same
patriarch. We have read these questions in the collec-
tion of canons at Basibrina. In his Book on Theology, Bar
Salibi quoted his exposition of the term (Ariphus) in
the north-west of Constantinople, by which he meant
the tide and ebb which occurs seven times a day. 67

150. Thomas the Stylite (837)

Thomas was a distinguished ascetic priest, who lived
at the top of a pillar in a place called Benshemesh,
beyond the Khabur river in upper Jazira. He was alive in
837. This fact is attested by his handwriting, dating back
to this year in the Book of the Six Days, preserved in the
library of Lyon and transcribed by the priest Dioscorus. 68
He had, it seems, a good knowledge of literature and
culture. He also corresponded with Master David bar
Paul of Beth Rabban. To this David he wrote a pleasant
reply (formerly mentioned) supporting his views, with
testimonies from St. Ephraim, Severus, Pythagoras and
Plato. Also formerly mentioned was David’s reply to him
(letter No. 30) in which he praised his virtues, and the
two letters of the monkjohn addressed to him (letters
No. 38 and 39) . He also compiled a husoyo (Supplicatory
Prayer) for the martyr Azazel of Samosata. 69

151. Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 843)

One of the choicest of our scholars in the ninth

century, he became a monk in the Monastery of Mar
Jacob in Cyrrhus or the Edessene Mountain, and was
ordained a priest. He studied the science of theology
thoroughly and obtained the title of Malphan or “Doc-
tor”^ the science of religious dogma. Under him many
studied the commentaries of the homilies of Gregory
Nazianzen; for each homily he made an index contain-
ing Biblical verses and commentaries by Church fa-
thers. As a result many of his students became priests
and thus benefited the people in their religion. His
disciples, particularly the monk Daniel of Beth Batin,
wrote commentaries on the obscure parts of these
homilies. 70 He continued his lectures on these homilies,
even in his seclusion with his students, at the Monastery
ofTalada. On the third ofjune, 837, or probably shortly
after, he was ordained Metropolitan of Edessa. His
death in 843 is proved by the ordination of his successor,
the Metropolitan Elias.

Benjamin had a commentary on the celebration of
the Holy Eucharist, in two pages, addressed to the
monk-priest Simon. 71 He is also cited by Bar Salibi in his

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Commentary on Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. 72

152. Basilius, bishop of Samosata (d. 843)

Basilius studied and became a monk at the Monstery

of Qinnesrin and was ordained a bishop around 809. He
replied to questions submitted to him by some clergy of
Edessa. 75 He died around 843.

153. Rabban (master) Anton of Takrit

Anton was a very learned man, a leading philologist
and one of the ablest writers and poets. He was a native
of Takrit, from the family of Georgin or Keorgin. 74 He
entered a monastery of the East and was ordained a
priest, after he thoroughly studied the origins, elo-
quence and poetry of the Syriac language. In this field
he stands supreme. He also studied Greek, but he loved
his own language so much that he could not stand the
accusation made by some Greek writers that it was
deficient and wanting. Therefore, he wrote his invalu-
able work entitled The Knowledge of Rhetoric, in five
treatises, 75 consisting of four-hundred pages, in defense
of this language. The first treatise and the largest con-
sists of thirty charpters On Rhetoric; the second, On
What Is The Use of Praise; the third, On The Rules of
Refinement and Art; the fourth, On The Types and
Varieties ofLove and Affection; and thefifth treatise On
The Embellishments Of Speech, in which he elabo-
rated on the varieties o[ poetry and rhyme. He is
considered one of the first to use if not create rhyme.
The style of his book is grand and eloquent. Itis truly the
pride of the Aramaic tongue. Because of it he was called
“The Rhetorician” and the “Bearer of the Standard of
Eloquence” among the Syrians. His book became an
encyclopedic reference source for the masters of lan-
guage which they attempted to imitate. One of his
achievements is that he invented a new eight-syllable
meter in Syriac verse which became identified with his
name. Three copies of this unique book are extant, one
in Mar Matta (St. Matthew’s) Monastery, near Mosul,
the other in Jerusalem and the third in Midyat (Tur-
key). The first copy was transcribed in 1403; the second
which is the most complete of them all, was transcribed
partly in the fourteenth and pardy at the beginning of
the sixteenth centuries; 78 and the third was transcribed
close to the date of the first one, but it is lost. Out of
these three we compiled a reliable copy, lacking, only a
few pages and is awaiting the efforts of the C.S.C.O.
Society to have it published. 77

This erudite (Anton) also acquired great proficiency
in theological sciences. He wrote a book On the Provi-
dence of Cod, in four treatises, covering seventy-six pages,
in which he discussed the types of death the bounds
placed by God on death and fate, as well as wealth and
poverty. He also wrote a treatise On the Sacrament of the
Chrism in twenty-seven long pages, compiled from the
Bible and the commentaries of the Church fathers, Like
Justin, Hippolytus, Ephraim and his disciple Aba,

Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa,
Epiphanius, Cyril, Dionysius, the Areopagite and David
of Salh. He also compiled an anthology in seventy-four
pages, 78 consisting of eight metrical discourses, most of
which are in the eight-syllable meter. Also, he wrote five
letters, one to an imprisoned man, imperfect at the
beginning; the second, on thanksgiving (to God) on the
part of a certain Euphemius, alias Uthman ibn Anbasa
of Callinicus; the third, a consolatory letter; the fourth,
contains an encomium on one Sergius; and the fifth,
containing an encomim on an aged distinguished monk,
Joseph of Ras Ayn, mentioned by the author as his
lonng-time companion. This letter also ccntains por-
tions of his chronicle, tributes and religious disputa-
tions with Muslims. He also described the town of Ras
Ayn, the firtility of its soil and the pleasant living in it.
Hence, we know that he had traveled through thejazira
(in upper Mesoptamia) and visited its monasteries.
Then he went to Edessa and showed his book to
Theodosius, its metropolitan, who admired his classifi-
cation of poetry and highly praised him. The sixth letter
is on praise, but is wanting. The seventh letter was a
splendid pentasyllable discourse against claumny, with
allusions to those who slandered or belittled him. The
eighth letter, against the ungrateful and the denier of
grace which demonstrates his natural poetical aptitude
and achievement in the composition of verse.

Anton also composed four supplicatory prayers, one
for the morning, one for the evening, one for the dead
and the last for supplication. These prayers as well as his
formerly-mentioned writings are preserved in two MSS
in London. 79 It is also probably that Anton penned
other writings which have been lost. However, he who
desires, to grasp the principles of Syriac and its elo-
quence, should study the writings of this proficientand
outstanding scholar. He shall also find in his first book,
i.e.. The Knowledge of Rhetoric the basis of smooth and
lucid Syriac needed for eloquent composition. In like
manner, those who came after him wrote in Arabic, like
Abd al-Rahman al-Hamadhani (d. 933), in his book al-
Alfaz al-Kitabiyya (Philological Expressions), Qudama
ibnjafar al-Baghdadi (d. 947) in his book Jawahir al-
Alfaz (The Gems of Expressions) and Abu Mansur al
Thaalibi (d. 1033) in his book Fiqhal-Lugha (Philology).
I think that Anton Rhetor died between 840 and 850. 80

154. Mar Dionysius of Tall Mahre (d. 845)

Mar Dionysius I known as the “Tall Mahre,” the
seventieth patriarch of Antioch, was a great and unique
church dignitary deeply versed in knowledge. He was
bom at Tall Mahre to a noble and wealthy Edessene
family and became famous at the beginning of the
seven th cen tury for his great con tribu tion to the church
of Edessa. At Qinnesrin he studied philology, jurispru-
dence, philosophy and theology and entered the mo-
nastic life. It is sufficient to mention that in 818 forty-
eight metropolitans and bishops unanimously elected

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

him for the Apostolic See, while he was still an initiate
monk. When he headed the Church, he adorned his
high office with his piety, honest belief, deep under-
standing, wide knowledge and firm will. For twenty-
seven years he administered the affairs of the Church
with great energy, discerning policy, sound judgement,
and graceful patience. He held three councils at
Callinicus in 818, another council at Ouspholis in 828
and another at Takrit in 834. He also issued canons and
ordained a hundred metropolitans whose names are
cited by Michael the Great He visited the Caliph al-
Mamun in Baghdad and Egypt three dmesand paid one
visit to the Caliph Mutasim, who recognized his caliber
and high position, and chose him for a political mission.
Also, he was respected and recognized by the Amir Abd
Allah ibn Tahir al-Khuzai. The former was the most
famous of the Abbasid Caliphs in judiciousness and
knowledge. The latter was the best of the Amirs in
character, chivalry and justice; he rebuilt the churches
which had been unjustly destroyed. After leading a
dignified life, but one bothered by sufferings inflicted
on his people by the unjust rulers, he died on the twenty-
second of August, 845 . 81 One of his writings is magnifi-
cent Annals, covering the period from 583 to 843, which
he compiled at the request of John, metropolitan of
Dara. It consists of two volumes, each divided into eight
treatises, which in turn are divided into chapters, cover-
ing the events of 260 years. Michael the Great utilized
the AnnalsXo a great extentand enriched his history, by
incorporated Dionysius’ introduction in its entirety to
it He also added to it the events of these Annals in brief.
The original copy of these Annals was lost, except for
two or three chapters, but its compendius has survived.
The Annals of Dionysius also contains an interesting
description of the pyramids, as well as the conditions of
the Coptic Church which welcomed him, and his accep-
tance by the patriarchjacob and his bishop outside the
cityofTannisin 833. These accounts were incorporated
by Bar Hebraeus into his Ecclesiastical History. It was
mentioned before that Assemani had erroneously as-
cribed to Dionysius the history written by the monk of
Zuqnin. 82 Finally, Dionysius issued twelve canons at the
council of Callinicus, preceded by a distinguished proc-
lamation immediately after his consecration. 83

155. Nonnus of Nisibin

Nona or Nonnus, archdeacon of the church ofNisibin
was an eloquent Syrian with a smooth style. He was also
deeply versed in the sciences of philosophy and theol-
ogy. Discovering that he was a keen polemicist, the
patriarch Cyriacus delegated young Nonnus in 814 to
the Court of Ashut, the Patrician of Armenia, to chal-
lenge Theodore ibn Qurra, who was attempting to
convert the Armenians to the Malkite doctrine. Conse-
quently, Nonnus defeated his opponent and converted
a greatnumber of the followers ofjulian the Phan tasiast
to Orthodoxy, according to Michael the Great. In 818

he witnessed the consecration of the patriarch Dionysius,
and in 822 he complained to him against Philoxenus,
metropolitan ofNisibin. In 828 the patriarch praised
the knowledge and excellence of Nonnus.

What remains to us of his writings is a medium-sized
vellum MS consisting of one hundred and forty pages
and written in the Estrangelo script. 84 It contains the
following:

1 . A treatise in reply to one who asked him the proof
of the oneness of God and the Trinity. It also contains
a rational and not the traditional proof of the Word of
God 85 in forty pages.

2. A lengthy treatise consisting of four discourses in
eighty-two pages, composed by him when in prison,
around 855, against Thomas, the eloquent Nestorian
writer and bishop of Marga. Apart from defending the
sound doctrine of the Church regarding the Incarnate
Word of God, he also mentioned the martyrdom of St.
Babuy, Catholicos of the East and the persecution
inflicted by Barsoum of Nisibin, his message of the
clergy and the believers and the burning of the books of
the Church fathers by his followers. It happened that
Nonnus and Thomas were put in the same prison by the
order of the king. A controversy went on between the
two, when Thomas asked Nonnus many questions, some
of which he answered and the rest he postponed to
answer in this treatise.

3. A reply to two theological questions, one pro-
pounded to him by someone, and the second in reply to
a question fromamonknamedjohn, in eighteen pages.
We have also read in the magazine of the French-Arme-
nian Studies (1:3) an article by Marius mentioning that
Nonnus wrote a commentary on the Gospel of St. John
in Arabic around 840, and that it was rendered into
Armenian around 856. He also gives the description of
the commentary.

156. The Anonymous Historian (846 A.D.)

In 846 a brilliant anonymous writer compiled a
general and very useful ecclesiastical history tabulated
according to years. His narration is very similar to that
of the monk from Qartamin. 86 It begins with the cre-
ation and ends with the consecration of John IV as
patriarch of Antioch. The manuscript containing these
annals is slightly imperfect at the beginning. It consists
of seventy pages, seventeen of which are about the pre-
Christian events from the death ofjacob the Father of
the Children of Israel, the rest is about the post-Chris-
tian era. Some parts ofitare detailed. 87 Itwas published
by Brooks in the second volume of Chronica Minora (pp.
157-238), and was also translated into Latin.

157. Arabi, metropolitan of Samosata (850 A.D.)

Arabi became a monk and studied at the Monastery

of Qarqafta. He was ordained Metropolitan ofSamosata
around 846. He died in 850. In some manuscripts he is
identified as Shimshat, because he was born there but

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the name is more correct given to him since he was
Metropolitan of Samosata, according to Michael the
Great and Bar Bahlul (in his Dictionary) However, he
was a native of Antioch and an eminent scholar. He is
said to have written a commentary on one volume, 89 or
according to another source, on two volumes 90 of the
metrical discourses of Gregory Nazianzen. This work is
preserved in the Zafaran’s library in a vellum manu-
script written in the Estrangelo script and consists of
one hundred thirty-two pages. 91 Another copy of this
work, written in his own hand, is preserved in a London
manuscript This he wrote when still a monk and com-
pleted at his monastery on the seventh of April, 839. 92

158. The Monk Bar Hadhbshabba

This monk was a philologist engaged in the
interpunctuation and correction of the Syriac books in
the Monastery of St Matthew. We found his name
mentioned in the colophon of the homilies of Severus
(of Antioch) transcribed by the priest Addai of Amid as
follows: “This book has been precisely corrected and
interpunctuated according to the philological rules of
Bar Hadhbshabba, the militant stranger of the holy
Monastery of St. Matthew. "The book was transferred to
the Monastery of the Syrians in Egypt in 895. 93 Bar
Hadhbshabba most likely lived in the middle of the
ninth century.

159. The priest-philosopher Denha.

The priest Denha was a learned monk in the Monas-
tery of St. Gurgis (George) . He had a close priest-friend
named Simon, from the village of Shiha, 94 who wrote to
him, suggesting that he should write a lengthy treatise
in the heptasyllable meter against the heretics. He also
suggested that the treatise should include counsel.
Denha replied in an eloquent heptasyllabic treatise
beginning with, “To the chief among the Sages and
leader of the philosophers.” We have read this treatise
in the Didascalia in Midyat. 95 Denha was most probably
living around the year 850. He also compiled discourses
and commentaries on the Psalms as well as on the works
of Gregory Nazianzen (translated by the abbot Paul),
and on the Dialectics of Aristotle, as mentioned by the
Subawi. 96 The works of Denha were quoted by the monk
John of Zubi.

160. IyawannLs (John), metropolitan of Dara (860
A.D.)

A proficient scholar and illustrious theologian, deeply
versed in religious sciences, he became a monk at the
Monastery of Mar Hananya near Mardin. Around 825,
the patriarch Dionysius of Tall Mahre ordained him
metropolitan of Dara, which he administered for thirty-
five years. He died in 860. This date of his death is
proved by the ordination of his successor Athanasius
Hakim around this year. 97

John was the one who requested Patriarch Dionysius

of Tall Mahre to write his annals. In his introduction to
these annals, the patriarch testified to John’s love and
pursuit of knowledge from youth until old age. 98

John composed distinguished works whose study by
the monks became compulsory. 99 These are cited by
later authorities like Bar Kifa, Bar Salibi and Bar
Hebraeus, These works are:

1 . A book on theology divided into twelve parts in
forty-nine chapters, consisting of four hundred-ninety
long pages. 100 It contains the theological books of the
Celestial Hierarchies, Ecclesiastical Hierarchies, a book
on the priesthood, on the priest, on the Resurrection,
on the Christian doctrine, on the offering of the Holy
Sacraments and on demons. This treatise was written at
the request of a bishop. The Vatican MS 100 (tran-
scribed before the year 932) begins with the four books
on the Resurrection, followed by the books on the
Celestial Hierarchies and the priesthood. 101

2. A book on Paradise, Creation, the Resurrection,
Epiphany, the Finding of the Cross and the Acts of our
Lord - all of which are contained in a large volume
consisting of four hundred forty-three pages and di-
vided into seven books. In this book the writer cites
authorities like Eusebuis; Nimysius, bishop of Hims;
Titus, metropolitan of Busra; Surian, bishop of Gabla;
Elias, bishop of Sinjar, and particularly, Philoxenus of
Mabug. There is an old copy of this work in the Zafaran’s
library 102 written in a fine Estrangelo script in the tenth
or the eleventh century, consisting of two hundred fifty-
four pages and slighdy wanting at the beginning. Our
copy and that in Birmingham are reproductions of this
manuscript. 105

3. A significant book on the Soul, into which he
incorporated the entire treatise on the Soul byjohn of
Atharb. An old copy of this treatise is extant in Boston’s
library, 104 written in a fine and eloquent script and
consisting of one hundred four long pages, imperfectat
the beginning through chapter four. Another copy of
the same is in the Vatican, 105 slightly imperfect, tran-
scribed at the end of the ninth century or shortly after
that.

4. A commentary on the New Testament or the
Gospels alone, mentioned by Bar Salibi in the introduc-
tion to his Commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew. This
commentary byjohn is lost.

5. An eloquent treatise on the policy of the Church
and the settlement of peace in it, consisting of thirty-
nine pages. There is an anonymous copy of this treatise
fixed at the end of his book on theology in the former
Mosul manuscript. This treatise is undoubtedly the
work of this erudite metropolitan which he wrote in the
days of the patriarch John IV (around 850). We also
have an accord copy of the treatise in nineteen pages,
transcribed in 1603, which is most probably a reply to
Basilius II, maphrian of the East (848-858).

6. A liturgy mentioned by Scholtingem and
Assemani, 106 but which we could not locate.

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

161. Jacob, bishop of Ana (860 A.D.)

Jacob, bishop of Ana, i.e., of the Banu Taghlib Arabs,
was chosen from the Monastery of Birqum by John IV,
who ordained him a bishop around 850 or 85 1 . He died
about ten years later, as is proved by the ordination of
his successor Bacchus around 860 or 861 . He was cited
once only by Bar Salibi in his exposition of Matthew
8:24. This work of Jacob is lost

162. The Monk Simon al-Hisn Mansuri (861 A.D.)

Simon al-Hisn Mansuri was a monk from the Monas-
tery of the Seven Martyrs near the old city of Farin. He
was a man of learning who most probably was alive in
861. He may have been a correspondent with the previ-
ously-mentioned philosopher Denha. He made mar-
ginal comments on the collection of the monk Sawira
(Severus) (his exposition of the Holy Scriptures) . 107

163. The Monk Sawira (Severus ) of Antioch (86 1 A.D. )

Severus became a monk and was ordained a priest in

the monastery of the female martyr Barbara on the
Edessene mountain. He was engaged in the study of the
commentaries on the two Testaments. In 851, he de-
cided to compile a detailed collection of these commen-
taries, which he successfully completed on the twenty-
fifth of March, 861 , after ten years of work. This magnifi-
cent collection contained, as he mentioned, about ten
thousand tracts expounding the obscurities of the Bible,
which testify to his excellence of his own opinion re-
garding religious sciences. One of the advantages of this
collection is that it has preserved the different commen-
taries of the Church Doctors, most of which were lost,
such as the commentaries on the Pentateuch, and the
Books ofjoshua, Job and Ecclesiastes byjacob of Edessa,
the commentaries on the prophets by St. Ephraim and
on Ecclesiastes by Daniel of Salh. 108

164. The Doctor Daniel of Beth Batin

Daniel was born at Beth Batin in the province of
Harran and became a monk in one of the monasteries.
He studied under Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa
and became known for his learning and literary works
in the middle of the ninth century. A British Museum
manuscript 109 contains a scholion on the homilies of
Gregory Nazianzen, one of which was compiled by
Rabban Benjamin and his school, and revised and
corrected and expounded by one of his disciples, Daniel.
Another manuscript in the British Museum contains a
short commen tary in fifty pages on the words of Gregory
Nazianzen, compiled by a writer who followed the
exposition ofBenjamin, metropolitan of Edessa. 110 From
the pen of Daniel we have also a treatise on the differ-
ence between the Eucharist and the Chrism, 111 and the
quality which distinguishes the Chrism from the sacri-
fice of the Eucharist; 112 and a record treatise on the
celebration of the Holy Eucharist and the path into
which it is divided, 115 which according to one copy, is

composed of seven parts. He also wrote a magnificent
biography of the Apostle Paul, his journeys and the
essence of his epistles, 114 in sixty pages. This same Daniel
is credited with assigning the Gospel lectionaries for
Passion Week, some of which he quoted from the
Diatessaron, assisted by his diligent disciple Isaac, as is
mentioned by the ancient copies of the Gospels.

165. Isaac, the Compiler of the Liturgy

We have a liturgy compiled by Mar Isaac, beginning
with, “O Lord, the Father of safety, of peace and the
fountain of beneficence.” 1 15 This liturgy was most prob-
ably composed by Isaac, bishop ofNisibin in the middle
of the ninth century. Probably this Isaac was the same
disciple of the Rabban Daniel of Beth Batin. The liturgy
was published in Malabar (India) in 1931.

166. John IV (d. 873)

John became a monk, studied and was ordained a
priest in the Monastery of Mar Zacchaeus (Zakka) , near
Callinicus. In February, 846, he was chosen and conse-
crated patriarch of Antioch by the Holy Synod which
metatthe Monastery ofShilan ear Saruj. In this meeting
of the Synod, he wrote twenty-five canons, followed by
a table indicating the degrees of consanguinity which
forbid marriage. 116 In 869, he called a second Synod to
a meeting at Kafr Tut, in which he issued eight canons
for the offices of Patriarch and the Maphrian, an abridge-
ment of which may be found in the Hudoye
(Nomocanon). 117 There is also a tract in fifteen pages
on the division of inheritance according to ecclesiasti-
cal laws, which may have been compiled by them, if not
byjohn III. He also wrote a synodical letter to Joseph,
patriarch of Alexandria, 118 and received a reply from
him. He ordained eighty-six metropolitans and bish-
ops, 119 and died on the third of January, 873.

167. Ignatius II (d. 883)

Ignatius studied and became a monk at the Monas-
tery of Harbaz and was consecrated the patriarch of
Antioch in 878. In the same Synod which met to conse-
crate him at the Monastery of Mar Zacchaeus, he issued
twelve canons and made them public to the congrega-
tion through a Patriarchal Bull. We have a copy of these
canons, except for the first and the second canons and
part of the third. He ordained twenty-six metropolitans
and bishops and died in 883. 120

168. The Patriarch Theodosius (d. 896)

Born at Takrit as Romanus, 121 Theodosius became a
monk and studied at the Monastery of Qartamin. His
Syriac style was majestic and he probably knew Greek
too. He studied and mastered medicine and was consid-
ered a skillful physician. He was consecrated patriarch
of Antioch in 887 and ordained thirty-two metropoli-
tans and bishops. He died at his monastery in 896. His
works are:

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1. A lengthy commentary on Pseudo-Hierotheus, 122
dedicated to Lazarus, bishop of Cyrrhus. He finished
the first and the second treatises of this work at Amid,
where he resided for a long time. The third treatise was
finished at Samosata. There is an ancient imperfect
copy of this magnificent work in the Zafaran’s library 125
in the handwriting of Abu Nasr of Bartulli, copied in
1290 and containing half of this commentary.

2. He wrote a treatise addressed to the deacon George,
explaining the maxims and proverbs of philosophers,
most ofwhich he translated from Greek into Syriac. He
also included in this treatise a collection of one hun-
dred twelve Pythagorian maxims. It was published in
both Syriac and Arabic. 124

3. He also wrote a medical syntagma ( Kunnash )
bearing his name, which was admired by Bar Hebraeus.
This Kunnashis lost except for a firagmen t in the Vatican. 15
He also wrote a synodical epistle and a Lenten homily in
Arabic. 126

169. The Deacon Zura of Nisibin

The Deacon Zura or Zaura was an authoritative
commentator on the Holy Bible. He compiled a collec-
tion of commentaries on the Book of Genesis and the
Psalms, in which he explained their hidden meanings.
He was quoted twice by Bar Salibi in his literal exposi-
tion of the Book of Genesis, particularly the verse, “And
out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every
tree that is pleasant to the sight.” 127 He also quoted him
a third time on the exposition of the Tree of Life and
a fourth time in his spiritual exposition of Psalms Seven
and Twenty-one. Later, he briefly quoted him as well as
other commentators like Athanasius and Daniel. 128
This is all which is known about Zura. His era is not
known, bull think that he was a scholar of the ninth or
the tenth century.

170. Gar shun the Stranger

Garshun was a man of letters who knew Syriac and
Greek and logic well. We found a splendid and compre-
hensive letter by him consisting of thirty-two pages.
Twenty-two pages contain brief philosophical and sci-
entific definitions written in the form of a dialogue, and
ten pages containing a translation of Greek terms into
Syriac. He never missed an old term without recording
it, in order to be used by the polemicists against the
heretics. His name was no more than “Garshun the
Stranger.” 129 We think he was still living at the end of the
tenth century, or was one of the seven logician sages
who flourished in the monasteries of Melitene and were
maliciously exiled to Constantinople by the Greeks with
John II, metropolitan of Melitene, around 1003. They
died in prison shortly after 1005. 150

171. Job of Manimim

John was a native of Manimim in Tur Abdin, but
originally his family came from Habsnas. He was a

nephew of David, metropolitan of Harran (855-880)
and a relative of Mar Simon Zaytuni (d. 734). 151 He
acquired a part of his literary knowledge in the Monas-
tery of Qartamin or at the school of Habsnas, which was
founded by the bishop Simon. At the close of the ninth
or at the beginning of the tenth century, he wrote the
biography of this saint, at the end of which he fixed his
own name and genealogy. In a later period, his chronicle
was attached to it, particularly the anecdotes connected
with the history of Tur Abdin. These anecdotes, consist-
ing of forty-two pages, contain fabricated tales unre-
lated to him. 152

172. Mar Moses bar Kifa (d. 903)

He is one of our authoritative scholars an established
philosopher and theologian, a great Malphan (Doctor)
of the Church and unique in his age for his copious and
interesting works, whose study became imperative for
the clergy.

Moses bar Simon, better known as Bar Kifa, was bom
at the town of Kuhayl or Mashhad Kuhayl around 813,
according to an old authority. 155 He entered the Monas-
tery of Mar Sergius in the Barren Mountain between
Sinjar and Balad and studied the Holy Bible and the
sciences of philosophy and theology and Syriac under
its abbot, Cyriacus. Soon he was so well-known for his
diligence and energetic pursuit of knowledge, that his
fame raised him about to the level of the very learned
Jacob of Edessa. He was ordained a bishop of Beth
Remman, Beth Kiyona in 863, and for some time, of
Mosul, too. 154 Also for ten years he was a periodeutes of
the See of Takrit after the death of the Maphrians
Melchizedek and Sergius. He died on the twelfth of
February, 903, at about ninety years of age, and was
commemorated by the Church. Following are his
works which he compiled at the request of Ignatius,
bishop of Qronta, and of his teacher and abbot of his
monastery, Cyriacus, and his disciples Habib and
Rabban Paul:

1. A commentary on the Old Testament, which was
described by Bar Hebraeus as “an amazing elaborate
commentary.” 155 His biography also mentions that he
wrote commentaries on the Psalms, the Pentateuch, the
book of Judges, the books of the Prophets, the Gospels
and the Acts of the Aposdes. He himself mentioned in
his book Paradise his commen tary on Genesis, which has
been also cited by Bar Salibi in his literary exposition of
the same book. This commentary, though imperfect, is
in the British Museum, 156 and there are tracts from it in
the British Museum, 157 in Paris 158 and Oxford. 159 Bar
Salibi quoted thirty-two chapters of his commentary on
the Psalms. 140

2. A commentary on the New Testament to which he
alluded in some of his introductions. The commentary
on the Gospel of St. Luke 141 and a commentary on the
Gospel of St. John is in six hundred twenty pages. 142 A
MS. in London contains the commentary on the Gos-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

pelsofSt. Matthew and of St. Luke, St. Paul’s Epistles to
the Romans, Ephesians and the first Epistle to the
Corinthians. 145 There are also another two manuscripts,
an ancient one in Paris, containing a commentary on
the Pauline Epistles 144 and the other, which is also
ancient, in the Zafaran, containing a commentary on
the same epistles and the Apocalypse. 145

3. A commentary on the Hexaemeron (Six Days) in five
books, written after the commentary on the Gospels
and the treatise on the soul, at the request of Ignatius,
bishop of Qronta. The first book is divided into fifty
chapters in fifty-three pages, with Chapters 27, 28 and
29 wanting in some places. The record book consists of
one hundred forty-five pages and contains the Biblical
anecdote on the Creation. It is slighdy imperfect at the
end. The third book, in twenty-one chapters, is on the
Sun, the moon, the stars, and the swimming, walking
and flying birds. The fourth book, in twenty-four chap-
ters on the four elements; and the fifth in thirty-eight
chapters, on beings and what is happening in the upper
and middle regions of the sphere; itis slightly imperfect.
This book discusses the existence of God, his oneness
and Trinity and eternity, indefinability, and incompre-
hensibility. It also discusses the Person of the Word and
of the Holy Spirit, the perceptible world and a refuta-
tion of the doctrine of the perpetuity of the matter.
Moses’ commentary on the Bible is spiritual and sym-
bolic. His authorities are Athanasius, Ephraim, Basilius,
Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa , Zenobius, Cyril,
Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, Severus of Antioch,
Severus Sabukht, Jacob of Edessa, and Theodore of
Mopsuestia, the Nestorian, whom he cited twice. Of this
book there is a copy in Mosul, transcribed by the priest
Mahbub al-Shufite and completed in 1220. The MSS in
Birmingham, 146 and two copies at Paris are reproduc-
tions of this copy. 147

4-5. A treatise on the Creation of the Angles, in which
he expounded the Biblical text literally and mystically.
His authorities were mainly Ephraim, Basilius, Gregory
Nazianzen, John Chrysostom, Severus of Antioch,
Dionysius the Areopagite, Methodius, Eustathius of
Antioch, Gregory of Nyssa, Epiphanus, Theodatus of
Ancyra, Cyril, John Philoponusand the liturgies ofjohn
of Busra and Jacob of Edessa. This treatise consists of
fifty-four chapters in two hundred thirty-eight medium-
sized pages, of which chapter 9 and part of chapter 46
are wanting. Appended to this treatise is, as we think, his
other treatise on the Celestial Hierarchies. His authori-
ties are the liturgy of James, the brother of Our Lord,
Athanasius, Basilius, Jacob of Saruj, Dionysius the
Areopagite and Severus. It is divided into sixteen chap-
ters in sixty pages. 14 * Both of these treatises are un-
known in Europe.

6. A treatise on Paradise in two discourses. The first
one consists of twenty-eight chapters and the second of
seven chapters, as the author states in his introduction.
It contains spiritual expositions. In this treatise, the

author cited thirteen authori ties, particularly Philoxenus
of Mabug, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzen, and
Jacob of Saruj. He also cited the treatise on the Cross by
Athanasius, Nymisius, bishop of Hims whom he also
mentioned in Chapter 20, the exposition of Isaiah by
Cyril of Alexandria and also his treatise on Worship in
Spirit, the refutation ofjulian the Apostate, the treatise
on the cause of this world and the coming of the next
world. He also cited Severus of Andoch and the theo-
logical treatise byjacob ofEdessa. The author mendons
at the end of the seventh chapter of the second book
that Bar Kifa stopped finishing the work. However,
Chabot states that the Ladn translation of this treadse by
Andreas Masius in 1 569 consisted of three books only. 149

7. A treadse on the Resurrecdon in twenty-four
chapters. 150

8. A magnificent treatise on the Rational Soul in sixty-
five chapters and not forty-one chapters as believed by
Duval, or forty as mentioned by the Vatican MS. In this
treatise, the author cites the Doctrine of Addai,
Hierotheus, Methodosius, Ephraim, Basilius, Cycil of
Alexandria, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, John
Chrysostom, Theophilus, Cyril, the Father Isaiah, Jacob
of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, Severus of Antioch, and
Jacob of Edessa. He also cited Plato, Aristotle,
Appolinarius of Laodicea, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and
John Philoponus. The treatise was translated into Ger-
man by Braun in 1891.

9. A treatise on free will, pre-destination and natural
pestilences, divided into four discourses, comprising
two hundred eight medium-sized pages. It deals with
polemical and theological subjects, in which the author
proved that death, whatever kind it is, does not befall
people except by the order and permission of God. The
treatise was also against the heathen, the Manicheans,
Marcion and others who promulgated the doctrine of
pre-destination. He also cited authorities to prove his
point. Of this treatise there is a very old single copy in
London, 155 in the handwriting of Simon, which is thought
to have been completed in the tenth or the eleventh
century. Chapter 1 , part of chapter 2 and the beginning
of the second discourse are missing. In this copy the
name of the author frequently appears, reversed in the
margin. He has also ascribed the biography of Severus
tojohn bar Aphtonya.

10. An exposition of the Sacraments of the church,
such as the Baptism in twenty-four chapters, addressed
to his friend Ignatius, 154 and also on the celebration of
the Eucharist and on the holy Chrism. 155

11. An exposition of the mysteries in the various
ordinations, such as the ordination of deacons, priests
and bishops. 156

1 2. A treatise on the reason for the festal homilies for
the whole year, which he wrote at the request of some of
his brethren as he mentioned in the introduction to
chapter one of this treatise. It also contains discourses
and homilies from the Sunday of the Consecration of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the Church to the feast of the Cross, and also homilies
for the commemoration of martyrs and saints, part of
which are divided into chapters. Some of these homilies
contains fifty short chapters, such as the discourses on
the holy Chrism, of which two copies are extant in each
of the libraries in London, 157 Paris, 158 Tur Abdin, 159 our
library and one copy only in Sharfa. 160

13. The disputation against heresies spoken of by
Moses’ biographer, as stated by Assemani, 161 is probably
identical with his treatise on Sects, which is not men-
tioned by our Syriac copy. However, Bar Salibi in his
literal exposition of the book of Genesis states that, “Bar
Kifa wrote the treatise against heresies, as he mentioned
in the Hexaemeroru ”

1 4. A commentary on the Dialectics of Aristotle, men-
tioned by Bar Hebraeus. 162

15. An ecclesiastical history mentioned in his old
biography, 183 which he is thought to have transcribed in
his own handwriting in Jerusalem. His biography was
copied from this history. If this view is correct, then this
history must have been lost a very long time ago, be-
cause it was never mentioned by historians, like Michael
the Great, the Edessene and Bar Hebraeus.

16. A homily to be recited when the monks assume
the monastic habit, to which Bar Salibi in a discourse
mentioned in the book of ordination. 164

17. (A discourse) in ten chapters on the tonsure of
monks. 165

1 8. A homily on the consecration of the holy Chrism,
mentioned in the Service books. 166

19. Two discourses, 167 one for the instruction of the
Orthodox Church, and a discourse showing why the
Messiah is called by various epithets and names. 168 The
first discourse may be the one entitled, “An Admonitory
Discourse to the Children of the Holy Orthodox
Church,” consisting of ten chapters. 169

20. Four funeral sermons, one to be recited at the
funerals of the clergy; the rest for all funerals. 170

21. Two liturgies, one beginning with, “O Lord, the
God eternal and true light,” in nine pages, 171 and the
second beginning with, “O Immaculate, Holy and Ever-
lasting Lord.” 172

22. Five husoyos (supplicatory prayers) for the Nativ-
ity of our Lord, Palm Sunday, and for the second Sunday
of the mdabronuth (dispensation of our Lord), which
had been inserted in the service books. 175

23. To Moses is ascribed the treatise on priesthood,
but it is a matter of question. A copy of this treatise is
extant in Constantinople, dated 1574 and entitled, Six
Discourses on the Heavenly and Earthly Priesthoods by Bar
Kifa. The first discourse is divided into eight chapters;
the second, into eighteen chapters; the fourth, into
thirteen chapters; the fifth, into five chapters on the
service of priests and that priesthood is worthless with-
out good deeds; and the sixth, in ninety-two pages,
containing commentaries on Baptism, the celebration
of the Eucharist, the Chrism and the priestly services.

There is another copy in the Sharfa entitled Maymars
(metrical discourses) on the Pries thoodhy Moses bar Kifa
in one hundred forty-six pages. 174 Some scholars believe
that this discourse belongs tojohn of Dara.John, in fact,
has four discourses on the priest and priesthood men-
tioned in his book entitled Theology , 175 in sixty-seven
pages, which chapter and pages are different from the
work under discussion. They most probably are two
different works.

173. Ezekiel II, metropolitan of Melitene (905 A.D.)

Ezekiel assumed the monastic garb and studied at

the Monastery of Mar Athonos. He was a man of vast
learning and literary knowledge. In 889 he was or-
dained metropolitan of Melitene and died around 905.
Michael the Great says that, “Ezekiel was proficient like
his predecessor, St. Thomas, the logician sage, a monk
of the Monastery of Mar Barsoum. He was ordained
(metropolitan) of Melitene in 869.” 176 Ezekiel com-
posed an eloquent heptasyllabic discourse, praising the
virtues of Mar Barsoum the Ascetic. We found part of
this discourse in an old book in the village of “Kunnaki,”
written in the hand of the metropolitan Abraham of
Manimim in 1478. 177

174. Dionysius II (d. 909)

Dionysius practiced the monastic life and studied at
the Monastery of Beth Batin. He was consecrated patri-
arch of Antioch in April, 896. Immediately after his
consecration, he held a synod at the Monastery of Mar
Shila, which was attended by thirty-five bishops. In this
synod, he issued twenty-five canons. 178 He died at the
Monastery of Beth Batin in 909 after he administered
the See for thirteen years and ordained forty-nine
metropolitans and bishops. 179

175-176. The Monks Rufil and Benjamin

The Syrian monks Rufil (or Rubil) and Benjamin
were distinguished for their knowledge of logic. They
were most likely professors in Baghdad, who, as we
believe, achieved fame at the beginning of the tenth
century. Rubil was profound in the search ofinfmitisimal
matters which he meticulously expounded. According
to Bar Hebraeus, “Abu Bishr ibn Matta the Nestorian
chief logician of his age, studied logic under these two
monks.” 180 Rubil died in 925.

177. Denha the philosopher (925 A.D.)

The Syrian Abu Zachariah Denha was a philosopher
and polemicist, who had many controversies with Abu
al-Hasan Ali al-Masudi in the western section of Baghdad
in the quarter of Umm Jafar and also in Takrit in the
church known as the “Green.” Al-Masudi mentioned
these controversies in his Kitab al-Masail wa al-Ilal fi al-
Madhahib wa al-Milal ( The Book of Questions and Causes on
the Doctrines and Sects), and also in his book Sirr al-Hayat
(The Secret of Life\. Said he, “And I also saw for him a book

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

on the lives and anecdotes of the Byzantine and Greek
Kings and philosophers.” 181

178. The Deacon Simon of Nisibin (950 A.D. )

The Deacon Simon became famous in Nisibin in the

middle of the tenth century, around 950. He wrote a
profound and ecclesiastical history in Syriac, beginning
from the sixth century down to his own time, of which
fragments only remain. Four events mentioned by this
history, two of which were natural events that occurred
in 918 and 922, 182 were quoted by Elias bar Shinaya,
metropolitan of Nisibin. Simon was also mentioned
four times in the collection of the anecdotes of Mardin
and other countries of Mesopotamia. These were com-
piled in an imperfect Arabic by an incompetent writer
who leaned on six anonymous writers, of whom we were
able to detect Deacon Simon. 183

179. Jacob, metropolitan of Miyafarqin (967 A.D.)

Jacob studied at the monastery of “Bezona,” where

he also assumed the monastic garb. Around 940, he was
ordained metropolitan of Miyafarqin by the patriarch
John V. He died in 967 and was succeeded by Timo-
thy. 184 He was a writer and man of letters. He wrote an
excellent homily to be read to the priests and deacons
at the time of their ordination. It begins with, “If you
choose to enter into the service of God,” etc. and is still
recited until this day at the ordination services. 185
Assemani was mistaken in ascribing this homily toj acob
(of Bartulli) , due to his confusion of Miyafarqin with
Takrit, as has been observed by Abbe Martin.

180. Yahya ibn Adi (d. 974)

Abu Zachariah Yahya ibn Adi ibn Hamid ibn
Zachariah, the scholastic of Takrit, and resident of
Baghdad studied under Abu Bishr Malta and Abu Nasr
al Farabi. He was the chief logician of his time. He lived
eighty-one years and died in 974. His writings are tre-
mendous. In his treatise “The Ethikon” which we pub-
lished in Chicago in 1928, we recorded seventy works by
him, including books and treatises. 186 He translated
from Syriac into Arabic ten works, which are: The Laws
by Plato, 187 Theophrastos , 188 the Metaphysics , 189 DeDialectica,
De Sophist, De Poetica, The Treatise on the Four Categories,
The Second Treatiese on Physics, The Letter “M” of Aristotle’s
Theology, and On Meteorology. 190

He also revised the translation of Alexander’s com-
mentary on the treatise On the Heavens translated by
Bishr ibn Matta, 191 the first treatise of Physics translated
by Abu Rawh al-Sabi and Timeus by Plato. 192

181. Athanasius, bishop of Qallisura (d. 982)

Athanasius was ordained a bishop of Qallisura aroun d

970. He died around 982. 193 He was an eloquent writer
who wrote a lengthy husoyo (supplicatory prayer), re-
cited at the evening sendee before the feast of Mar
Aaron the ascetic. Itbeginswith, “Thanks to the Immea-

surable Ocean of Eternal Bliss.” 194

182. Matta, bishop of al-Hassasa

Matta was the bishop of al-Hassasa near Takrit, which
was destroyed long ago. He was a man of letters whose
compositions are, to an extent, intricate. He compiled
a short liturgy beginning with, “Grant us O Lord in this
time continuous safety and peace.” 195 This liturgy was
ascribed by many copyists to Matta the Shepherd or
Herma, whom they thought one of the seventy evange-
lists. This opinion is erroneous. Many manuscripts also
make him the Bishop of Mosul. 196 He belongs most
probably to the tenth century.

183. Al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar

Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan ibn Siwar ibn Bahnam, known
as al-Khammar, 1897 was born at Baghdad in 942. He
studied under Yahya ibn Adi and was distinguished for
his deep knowledge of Syriac and Arabic. Besides, he
mastered the origins and branches of the science of
medicine. Very wise and tactful, a philosopher with
great poise and knowledge, he knew how to handle
learned men, leaders of the common people, dignitar-
ies and kings. He behaved humbly toward the poor and
yet was accomplished in the society of the great. When
called by the Sultan, he went to see him, unnerved by
the pomp of great men and kings. In such cases, he was
even accompanied by three hundred beautifully attired
mounted Turkish slaves. He was greatly honored by the
Sultan Yamin al-Dawla Muhammad ibn Subuktakin,
Governor of Bukhara. Ibn Abi Usaybia counts fourteen
books by Ibn al-Khammar, who also proficiendy trans-
lated many books from Syriac into Arabic. 198 Ibn al-
Nadim mentioned four of these works Meteorology, De
Sophist, the Question of Theophrastos and the Magna
Moralia. 199 Ibn Abi Usaybia also mentions a fifth book,
thelsagoge and the Categories ofAlenius of Alexandria which
he said, “Ibn al-Khammar has expounded by using the
method of marginal notes. 200 Ibn al-Khammar was still
living after 997; however the year of his death is un-
known.

184. The Edessene bishop author of “The Cause of
all Causes”

This bishop was a distinguished man of learning and
a writer of good and masterful style. His name, however,
is not known, because he does not mention it in the
introduction to his famous work entided The Causes of all
Causes. But he mentions that he was a native of Edessa
and had spent about thirty years as a bishop. He also
states diat he had suffered affliction caused by his
people, which forced him to forsake his diocese. After
returning to it for a while he finally left if for good, due
to the intensified opposition he faced by those disobe-
dient to him. After taking to a life of prayer and worship
in a mountain with pious ascetic companions, he thought
of inviting all people to love one another because they

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

had the same belief. As a result he wrote a book in Syriac
called, The Cause of All Causes x or A Universal Book for AU
the Nations UnderHeaven, in which he teaches the people
how to come to the knowledge of truth and exhorts the
readers to translate it into other languages and carry it
to ail peoples, in order for them to obtain eternal
salvation and inherit the Garden of Eden. To his supe-
riors he apologized that, “God himself, not the author,
wanted this book to be written.”

Judging by the majestic style and the magnificent
subject which he discussed, we believe that the author
lived in the second half of the tenth century and by no
means before it It is also incorrect to consider his era as
late as the eleventh or the twelfth century, as has been
thought by some Orientalists. We also read in the
collection of the homilies for the whole year in Lon-
don, 201 copied by the monk Saliba, who finished its
transcription the twenty-eighth day ofjune, 1015, that
the person who had him transcribe this book was
Athanasius, bishop of Hisn Petrous (more correctly
Hisn Patrice) ibn Akhi whose name only God knows. T o
be sure, the name of this bishop was not mentioned by
the table containing the names of the bishops compiled
by Michael the Great. Therefore, he was one of those
few bishops whose nameswere lostorhewasAthanasius,
metropolitan of “Kodfi and Kharshana,” the thirty-third
of the bishops serving under Patriarch John VIII bar
Abdun, for the town of Hisn Patrice (Batriq) was not
mentioned among the Syrian dioceses. Also, it seems
that he was the nephew of the Edessene bishop, the
author of this book who stated in the introduction that,
“God knows his name.” The book is divided into nine
discourses, in sixty-six chapters, but all of its copies do
not include more than the second chapter of the sev-
enth discourse. However, Church scholars have com-
pletely overlooked this book because of the extreme
views of its author which do not convince when put to
the test.

The author relies on rational proofs rather than on
traditional authorities, except for the Bible, for he had
to have a basis for his argument. He discussed the
existence of God, his oneness, his persons and then
qualities, the incarnation of the Word of God and God
as the cause of all causes, whose care comprehends all.
He also discusses whether God is comprehensible or
not. Other questions he took up were the following:
Why did He create beings? Is there another world; What
is man, his nature and how could he know God? Are the
books of the Pentateuch true, and how even the light,
the heavens, the firmament, the celestial sphere cre-
ated? He also talks about the sun, moon, stars, earth, air,
clouds, thunder, rain and the difference of the seasons,
the kinds of birds, the ether, minerals, water, hot water
springs, trees, plants, animals and cattle and how we
should give consideration to all of them. Furthermore,
he treats the means through which the mind of man
ascends, and whether there is a limit for knowing the

truth. He also discussed the Kingdom of Heaven, Hell,
the descent of people and why their features, voices and
forms are different, and why cities were built and reli-
gions diversified. Finally, he discussed the priesthood
and the way leaders rule the people.

Chabot claims that, “The author attempted to unify
religion in the world, and thus avoided the discussion of
the Trinity and the Incarnation.” 202 The correct thing is
that he discussed the Sacrament of the Trinity in chap-
ter six of the first treatise. He also spoke openly of the
Incarnation. Chabot goes on to say that, “He had sym-
pathy towards the mystic philosophy which prevailed
among the Arabs.” The correct thing, however, is that
he had the knowledge of the progress of Arab sciences
in the Middle Ages. The second part of this book is
considered an encyclopedia of the sciences which were
taught in Syria at that time, adding to the same authen-
tic knowledge of his own. There is a significant copy of
this book in our library, consisting of four hundred four
pages, most of which was written by one clear hand in
the thirteenth century. The rest is in a more recent
hand. 205 This book was published by Kayser and was
translated into German and published by Siegfried
between 1889-1893. Itwas translated into Arabic around
1730 by the monk-priest Abd al-Nur of Amid, who
erroneously ascribed it to Jacob of Edessa.

185. The Syrian Scholars of the Tenth Century

The discussion of the Syrian scholars in the tenth
century has been left until the end of this century.
Although it should have preceded it - in order to clarify
our criticism of Rev. Jean Chabot’s claim that, “The
tenth century is marked with the decline of Syriac
literature and that no scholar in it emerged except the
deacon Simon of Nisibin and John the disciple of
Marun.” 204 In this thinking he followed Wright 205 and
Duval. 206 This claim could be refu ted by the fact that this
cen tury has produced many scholars whose biographies
were already mentioned. They are:

1. The six philosophers: the monks Rubil and
Benjamin, Denha the polemicist, Yahya ibn Adi, Ibn
al-Khammar, the deacon Isa ibn Zura (910-1007)
whose biography shall be mentioned later, all of
whom knew Syriac. Of these scholars the last three
ones translated many philosophical and medical
books into classical Arabic with utmost skill. How
remarkable is the knowledge of these men who trans-
lated such books, in addition to their known Arabic
writings! Therefore, they should not be excluded
from the Syrian scholars.

2. Other biographies have also been mentioned,
such as those of Ezekiel of Melitene, Dionysius II, Jacob
of Miyafarqin and Athanasius of Qallisura. The biogra-
phy of Athanasius IV shall also follow (905-1002).

3. To these must be added ten scholars who were
deeply versed in knowledge and philosophy, although
we know no work by them. They are: Gregory, metro-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

politan of Melitene and Claudia (923-964) ; the Rabban
Muqim, master of the Edessene Mountain and teacher
ofjohn Marun; Sergius, metropolitan of Apamea (956-
975), who accompanied John VII to the Capital
(Constantinople) in 968 ; and the seven sages, distin-
guished monks from the monasteries of Melitene who
were arrested by the Greeks in Constantinople around
1003.

4. Matta, bishop of al-Hassasa and the Edessene
bishop, the author of Cause of AU Causes, who evidently
belong to this century.

There are then twenty-three men of learning and
letters apart from those of whom we have no informa-
tion. If he (Chabot) and his counterparts (Wright and
Duval) had been more scholarly they would have found
that the Syrian bearers of knowledge numbered more
than the Latin men of learning in this century, which
was called by these historians “The Iron Century.” And
if they had been more just they should have said that
they could not find more than two of these Syrian
scholars. They should not have derogated this century.
Their unfamiliarity with the subject does not entitle
them to deny the fact that there were more Syrian
scholars in the tenth century. Moreover, the loss of
some works does not belittle the authors of these works.

186. Athanasius IV (d. 1002)

Athanasius IV of Salh, belongs to Salhiyya, not Salah.
His name was Lazarus. He assumed the monastic habit
and also studied at the Monastery of Mar Aron, known
as the Shaghr, where he became reputed for wisdom
and piety. He was consecrated a patriarch in 986 and
resided at the Barid Monastery, which he rebuilt and
embellished. He died in 1002 after he had ordained
thirty-nine metropolitans and bishops. In the year 1 000,
he compiled and assigned the lectionaries from both
Testaments to be read in the Church; his selections
indicate utmost taste and arrangement. 207

187. Anba John the Disciple of Marun ( 1003 )

Anba John was born around the year 920 A.D. and

lived as an ascetic in the Mountain of Edessa. He studied
under Marun the Ascetic, after whom he was called
Marun. He also studied under Muqim, the chief ascetic
of the Mountain of Edessa, and acquired profound
knowledge of the Scriptures and philosophy. About970
or 975 A.D. he moved to the Monastery of Sargisiyya,
which had been built in the plains of Jubas in the year
958. There he taught the monks of this monastery. As a
result of his teaching, the monastery acquired wide
scholarly fame and also claimed several writers. In 987
Anba John, urged by prince Eutychus, moved to the
Monastery of Bar Jaji. He completed its building, which
had been started by the abbot Iliyya ofTakrit. He called
it the Monastery of the Forty Martyrs. For twelve years at
this monastery, Anba John taught religious sciences to

many of its priests, who numbered about one hundred
and twenty. Later, he retired to a life of solitude in the
Monastery of Mar Aaron on the Blessed (Mubarak)
Mountain in the year 999, where he died, an old man,
on the twenty-fourth of June, 1003. 208

Besides his deep penetration of the sciences, Anba
John was a man of holiness and many virtues, who
excelled his contemporaries in wisdom. On this ac-
count he gained the attributes “The Doctor” and “The
Ocean of Wisdom.” He expounded the Book of
Ecclesiastes 209 and also wrote an excellent treatise in
seven pages on the incarnation of the Word of God and
the Orthodox belief of the holy Fathers. 210

188. Isa ibn Zura (1007)

The deacon Abu Ali Isa ibn Zura ibn Marcus, one of
the well-advanced men in the sciences of logic and
philosophy, was also an excellent translator. He was
bom on September, 942 and raised at Baghdad and
became a companion and follower of Yahya ibn Adi. Isa
was a good conversationalist, sociable, and dedicated to
teaching, translation and writing. He also traded with
the Greeks, but had many opponents among the Syrian
traders. These slandered him to the Sultan, who confis-
cated his property. He also suffered several calamities.
At the end of his life he worked meticulously on a
treatise on the immortality of the soul, spending one
year thinking it out and then writing it. 211 According to
Bar Hebraeus, Ibn Zura wrote five books 212 and excel-
lently translated six books on logic and medicine from
Syriac into Arabic. 213 Ibn al-Nadim mentioned five of
these books as follows: Historia Animalium by Aristotle,
the textof De Sophisticis x also by Aristotle, the benefits of
The Parts of Animals With the commentary ofjohn the
Grammarian, a treatise on ethics which has been lost,
and five treatises from the book of Nicolaous on the
Philosophy of Aristotle. 214 He died on September 16,
1007.

189. Bar Qiqi (d. 1016)

Ignatius Marcus Bar Qiqi, a Baghdadian from a
wealthy family, was the archdeacon of the church of
Mosul. According to another opinion he was a monk at
the Monastery of Bar Jaji, perhaps it was in this monas-
tery that he was ordained a maphrian of the East in 991.
Twenty-four years later, in 1016, he renounced the
Christian faith. Later he came back to his senses and
repented. He was the most eminent poet of his time,
with powerful rhetoric, natural poetical disposition,
and charming style and themes. Of his choicest poetry
is his lengthy dodecasyllabic panegyric of self-lament-
ing which would move even inanimate beings. This
panegyric, which is comprised of one hundred sixty-
four lines, demonstrates artistic beauty and talent. It
begins thus: “Through his cunning, Satan held a feast
for wickedness to which he invited the generations,
tribes and kindreds.” We have copied this panegyric

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

from the single extant manuscript in the village of Arbo
in Tur Abdin. 215 He also composed a passionate alpha-
betical hyptasyllabic song which is still sung by the
clergy. It begins thus: “I shall weep and weep and make
the people weep, 1,216 and a funeral song for repentance
which begins with: “When I remember my sins,” 2 ’ 7 and
a fewpolished rhymed heptasyllabic poetical lines which
he addressed to a friend, beginning with: “When I
received your letter, noble friend.” He then goes on
complaining against the heavy yoke of the rulers and
finally rebukes himself. 218 He died an aged man.

190. The Monk Lazarus (d. 1024)

Lazarus was a monk of the Monastery of Sarjisiyya
and a nephew of master David, a man of letters. He
entered the monastery in 979 and in 1024 he wrote the
recenthistory ofthe monasteries of Sarjisiyya and of Bar
Jaji, from the date of their founding in 958, to the year
1003. Michael the Great incorporated this account into
his Chronicle . 219

191. John, metropolitan of Tur Abdin (d. 1035)

John was born at the village of Basibrina in Tur

Abdin. He studied and became a monk in the Monas-
tery of Qartamin in 998, and not in 988, as has been
erroneously mentioned in history. He studied ancient
manuscripts and made fame by reviving the Estrangelo
script after nearly a hundred years of neglect in Tur
Abdin. He began by teaching the Estrangelo script to
his nephews, the monks Emmanuel, Peter and Yaish.
The first one, Emmanuel, transcribed seventy volumes,
containing the different translations of the Holy Bible,
particularly the Pshitto, the Septuagint and the
Heraclean, as well as the writings of the Doctors of the
Church. He bequeathed these volumes to the Monas-
tery of Qartamin. His handwriting was magnificent and
beautiful. According to Bar Hebraeus, the manuscripts
written by Emmanuel were unique and matchless. Two
of these volumes are in the Jerusalem Library, 220 and
another copy is in Berlin. 221 John is said to have died
around the year 1035.

192. The Monk Joseph of Melitene (d. 1058)

The monkjoseph of Melitene was a poet and man of
letters. He was taken captive by the Turks when they
invaded the city of Melitene and tortured its inhabitants
for the purpose of pillage in the year 1 058. He was able
to escape from his captivity with others and in three
panegyrics 222 lamented the city and its people for all the
misfortunes which befell it. He was most likely a monk
of the Monastery of Barjaji and brother ofjohn, son of
the priest Modyana, metropolitan of Melitene, for in
1061 this John mentioned his two brothers, the monks
Joseph and Habib. 223

193. John bar Shushan (d. 1072)

He is Yeshu the scribe, bom in Melitene, where he

studied the philological, religious and philosophical
sciences. He also became a monk in one of the monas-
teries and studied under the patriarch John IX, and
achieved fame for both piety and eloquence. He was
ordained a patriarch of Antioch after the installation of
Athanasius at Amid in 1058 and assumed the name
John. He is the ninth to assume this name after
Athanasius V. He then relinquished his post and was
reinstalled after the death of his opponent (Athanasius
V) in 1063. He administered the Church efficiently,
ordained seventeen metropolitans and a bishop. He
died on November 6, 1072.

Bar Shushan, who had a beautiful handwriting, cop-
ied many splendid books, and collected in one thick
volume the maymars of St. Ephraim andSL Isaac, butleft
it incomplete. He did an excellent job in dividing the
maymars of St. Isaac into chapters, vocalizing them and
commenting upon them. 224 He also wrote a five page
treatise, refuting the Malkite doctrine, which opens
with the Creed of Faith; 225 a lengthy polemical treatise
on the bad customs which had crept into the Armenian
congregation, contradictory to church customs, ^which
he sent to the Armenian Catholicos; and a disputative
argument with Gregory II the Armenian Catholicos
(1065-1069), who was deposed and then reinstalled.
Bar Shushan’s other writings are a liturgy which begins
with: “Fountain of love and goodness;” he is also said to
have written another liturgy which we could not find, a
short order of Baptism in ten pages used when death
strikes a child suddenly; 227 seven husoyos for the Sunday
preceding Christmas, for the evening and morning
services of the commemoration of Mar Severus - his
name is appended in the second husoyo- for the morn-
ings of the first four Wednesdays of Lent, for the Fridays
of the fourth and fifth weeks of Lent, mainly written for
pestilences and the stoppage of rain and for the first
time of prayer on Palm Sunday. 228 He also composed
splendid poetry, ofwhich four poems remain, written in
the heptasyllabic and the pentasyllable meters on the
calamity of Melitene in 1058. 229 We have it on the
authority of the bishop Sergius of Hah (1483), that Bar
Shushan wrote an excellent four page panegyric 230 in
praise ofjacob of Saruj, which begins with: “Jesus, the
lightwhose shining broughtjoy to all the earth. ”I Ie also
wrote letters, in some of which He refuted his oppo-
nent, and many homilies and treatises, all of which are
lost; twenty-four canons 231 ofwhich there survives only
the one on the obligatory nocturnal prayer for priests
and deacons. 232 He also wrote in Arabic a synodical
letter to Christodolus the Coptic Patriarch, and also
refuted those who criticized the Syrians for using salt,
leavened bread and little oil in the bread made for
Communion.

1 94. The Monk Sergius

At the two churches at Hbab and Banimim in Tur
Abdin 233 we found a letter of good composition in

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

twenty-five pages written by an author named Sergius,
who kept his clerical rank secret, out of humility. This
letter, an answer to eleven problems, he delivered to a
monk-priest named Yeshu in refutation of the Arme-
nians’ criticism concerning the Syrians placing the
night before the day in their rituals and the reason why
they use oil and salt in the bread for the Holy Commun-
ion. It explains their rejection of the sacrifices used by
the Armenians, and discusses whether the reception of
the holy mysteries should be practiced a few times a
year. It also discusses whether Christ ate meat while on
earth, the reason why the tables (on which the Holy
Eucharist is offered) and altars are sanctified but the
Cross is not, why we receive Holy Communion from the
cup with a spoon, why we celebrate the feast of the
Nativity before the Epiphany and not on the same day,
why we do not kneel down in prayer from the Sunday of
Resurrection to the Pentecost, and whether we should
confess our sins to a priest. Sergius excellendy answered
these questions relying on testimonies of doctors of the
Church. And as he has made no allusion to the captivity
of the Christians during which they were forced to eat
horse meat when they were invaded by the Turks, and
also made no reference to the books of the Fathers, Bar
Shushan, Bar Andrew and Bar Salibi, who disputed with
the Armenians, we were inclined to believe that he
wrote his episde shordy after the year 1058 or, after
1084, during which the Turks invaded the countries of
the Sham and the Greeks and destroyed them com-
pletely. As a result, seventy monks from the Syrian
monasteries moved to our monastery in Egypt. 254 As we
see, Sergius was a monk-priest.

195. Ignatius III, metropolitan of Melitene (d. 1 094)

In commending Ignatius III, Mar Michael (the
Great) 255 and Bar Hebraeus 256 said: “Ignatius, who came
from the Monastery of Mar Harun (Aaron) al-Shaghr,
was deeply versed in the books of the two Testaments as
well as in both the Greek and Syriac languages, gram-
mar, rhetoric and philosophy. He was a unique person
of his generation, belonging to the same category as
Thomas of Harqal (Heradea). Moreover he was kind-
hearted, meek, compassionate and ascetic with no earthly
possessions. He was ordained by his uncle Athanasius V,
metropolitan of Melitene on the fifth of April, 1 063. He
was the third metropolitan to be called Ignatius. During
the reign of Constantine X Ducas (1059-1067) he and
his uncle were persecuted by the Greeks and Ignatius
was imprisoned in the Monastery of Ebdocos for five
months. Upon the death of the patriarch, they (most
probably his congregation) took our Ignatius to
Constantinople where he valiantly defended the Ortho-
dox Faith. He was banished to the mountain of Gauis in
Macedonia, where he patiently remained three years,
enduring all kinds of misfortunes. Upon the king’s
death, he was released and returned to his diocese in
1067. He composed an epistle in about ten pages, in

which he related the humiliation which had befallen
him in his exile. 257

This learned man was-engaged in translations from
the Greek following the method of Jacob of Edessa. He
also wrote a brief profane history 258 and an ecclesiastical
one after the manner of the two histories Jacob of
Edessa and Dionysius of Tall Mahre, while adding to
their histories many even ts which he copied from Greek
histories, beginning with Constantine the Great until
his time. He restricted his chronicle to the dynasties of
Byzantine kings as well as Syrian church dignitaries,
while excluding the kingdoms of the Arabs and of the
Turks, which began either during his lifetime or shortly
before that. He also excluded other churches. In his
introduction he said; “I have written whatever I could
write with brevity and simple style, acquiring historical
information mainly in the Greek language. I have found
no history written in our language after that which was
written by Tall Mahre." This means that he was not
familiar with the two histories of Bar Kifa and Simon
of Nisibin. This history of Ignatius has been lost.
However, Michael the Great quoted from it and it
was his main source in writing the thirteenth chapter
of his Chronicle.

This genius died in September 1094 after he had
adorned the See of Melitene for more than thirty-one
years.

196. Said bar Sabuni (d. 1095)

Said is one of the few eminent men of rhetoric, well-
versed in theology and philosophy. He was born and
raised in Melitene, became a monk of the Monastery of
Amish and acquired a great deal of Syriac, Greek and
other philosophical sciences. He was consecrated met-
ropolitan of Melitene by the name of John in the year
1095. He had not been in his new position forty days
when hewasmurdered unjustly and arbitrarily by Gabriel
the Greek governor on the fourth day of July. He died
in the prime of his youth but divine justice took revenge
on the tyrant, who was ignobly murdered six or seven
years later. 259

Bar Hebraeus said; “Said and his brother Abu Ghalib
were the most distinguished of the people in their
time.” He also nicknamed Said as “The Writer of Sedras”
and “The Saint Doctor who is most Astonishing.” 240
Following is a list of his writings:

1) Fifteen most eloquent husoyos in one hundred
twenty pages of medium size. Two of the husoyos for the
feast of Mar Barsoum, one for the evening, alphabeti-
cally written backward, and forward. It also includes a
supplication, each verse of which begins with a letter of
the author’s name; a husoyo for each one of the morn-
ings of the Sunday of the Dead, the Wednesday of King
Abgar, the Thursday of the fourth week of Lent; two
husoyos for the forty martyrs; four dialectical husoyos, one
for the evening of the feast of Mar Gurgis (George),
beginning thus: “Unceasing praises,” one for the Dis-

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pensation of our Lord, one for the mornings of the
eighth Sunday after the Resurrection, as well as the
Transfiguration, beginning thus: “Praise Him who does
exist” and one for the festival of the Cross, in which
writing he achieved a great degree of excellence. 241 The
in troductory phrases of the first three husoyos show their
philosophical style. In the last two husoyos he incorpo-
rated Greek words. The remaining husoyos are: one for
the morning of the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin,
one for the evening of Tuesday of the fifth week of Lent,
and one for Pentecost 242

2) hymns known as the Canons, for the assuming of
the monastic habit, composed on the second melody of
the canons of the festival of Epiphany beginning thus:
“Good Lord, Thou has strengthened our weak nature.”
In this one he mentioned his own name. 245

3) The order of blessing of the branches on Palm
Sunday. Also he vocalized and corrected the order of
the Prostration for Pentecost. 244

4) Revision of the annual calendar of the festival of
saints byjacob of Edessa, to which he added feasts such
as those ofjohn Bar Abdun the Confessor, Patriarch of
Antioch, in the year 1030. 24S

5) A resounding ode which he composed on the
twelfth meter, in which he mentioned the virtues of the
Saint, Doctor Jacob of Saruj, and elaborated on his
praise, in an answer to a request of Abda, bishop of
Kharshana, who was a virtuous old man and who had
resigned from his diocese. This ode, comprising two
hundred twenty-nine lines and filling forty-two pages, is
excellendy composed, and since the composer fol-
lowed the same style of preceding excellent poets,
turned out to be one of the finest odes. The lines of this
ode are alphabetically arranged with repetition in the
beginning. In the copy of the Jerusalem MS. it begins
thus, “O storehouse of treasures from which all those in
need shall be enriched,” while in the copy of Basibrina
it begins thus, “O munificent God from whom all the
needy shall be enriched.” In this copy this ode has no
rhyme, except in some places where rhyme has been
perfunctorily and seldom used. This copy comprises
eight pages, the rest ofwhich is imperfect The first copy
is complete and was written in the twelfth century. In it
the name of the composer is mentioned as “a stranger
poet.” On its margin is fixed the following statement in
the handwriting of Metropolitan Sergius of Hah, “This
strangerisBar Sabuni, theauthor of magnificent husoyos,
as I have read in an ancient manuscript.” The copiest,
however, erroneously mentioned that the author com-
posed this ode in November of the year of the Greeks
1405, 229 corresponding to A.D. 1143, to which he un-
doubtedly added fifty years. The correct date is 1405 of
the Greeks, corresponding to A.D. 1093. The evidence
can be deduced from the forty-second line of the ode,
which states that 570 years have passed since the death
of the Malphan (Jacob of Saruj). And if you add this
number to 522 - because the Malphan passed away on

the twenty-ninth day of November, the total will be A.D.
1092. That John composed this ode while in the prime
of youth is attested by his statement in the 132nd line,
“How could I equate myself with the rank and knowl-
edge of this great doctor, since I am insignificant, weak,
young and of little knowledge. ” Therefore, we are of the
opinion that when he was murdered he was not exactly
forty years of age but he was in the fourth decade of age.
He also denied whether one of his disciples eulogized
Jacob of Saruj, as is stated by him in the forty-second
line, “570 years have passed since the time of the
Malphan (Jacob of Saruj); how many erudite masters
have shone and how many wise men have achieved fame
but they dared not eulogize him because they found
him far above their praise. Following is a part of the
content of this excellent ode.

The Malphan (Jacob of Saruj ) was the one who
invented the dodecasyllabic meter, which is the longest
meter in Greek as well as Syriac poetry (line 80); he
received the gift of the Holy Spirit in hisyouth (line 94) ;
Severus the Patriarch of Antioch examined his learning
ability (line 140); he informed him about Simon the
Potter, and the Patriarch encouraged both of them to
compose poetry (line 145)

In line 158 and the lines following it, he said:

God caused the springs of wisdom to erupt through
the tongue of Mar Jacob and he poured forth his
maymars (songs). From these maymars you would learn
the profound secrets of the language, the miraculous
classes of beings and their governor-man, the mysteries
of the doctrines of monotheism, the Trinity and the
Incarnation. You would also know about the descrip-
tion of prophets, Apostles and martyrs.

And if you were someone who is stricken by sins you
will find in his songs thousands of remedies and conso-
lation. Those who read his poems will be awed, yet they
are so excellent, people can not emulate them. You will
also discover that in his poems he admonishes worship-
ping men not to leave the church before the end of the
Mass and from beautifying themselves. He also admon-
ishes noble women to carry with their own hands the
flour for making the eucharistic bread to church and
not send it with their maids. He also taught people to say
grace before meals and composed poems about the
most important events in both Testaments, the annun-
ciation of the Apostles, the Councils of Nicaea and
Constantinople, the queen Helen and seven poems of
refutation of the Jews.

197. Dionysius ibn Modyana (d. 1120)

He is John the son of the priest Modyana “the
confessor ” of Melitene. He was still a deacon in the year
1061. I have seen an account written in a pleasant
Estrangelo script by him at Basibrina in which he men-
tioned his name and genealogy as well as those of his two
brothers, the priests Yusuf and Habib, who were monks
at the Monastery oflbnjaji. Itwasin this monastery that

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John studied and became a monk. He also studied
under Patriarch Yuhanna ibn Shushan, who ordained
him bishop of Jubas and gave him the name Dionysius
in the year 1070. When the Turks destroyed J u has, John
took residence in the Monastery of Mar Barsoum, then
moved to Melitene in 1 1 02. He was relieved from being
the bishop of this city in 1113 after he enriched it with
knowledge, especially the searching of the scriptures,
the writings of the Fathers as well as oratory and writing.
Patriarch Athanasius IV studied under him. Mar Michael
(the Great) said about him, “He was a learned man
(doctor) and to him credit is due for the awakening of
learning in Melitene until this day.” 246 After spending
fifty years in the service of the Church as a patriarch he
died, a revered old man, in the year 1120, and was
buried at the great church of Melitene. We have read an
excellent husoyo by him which he wrote for the ritual of
the Maccabees martyrs. Itbegins thus: "Thanks be to the
Lord of strife (for faith) and the one who crowns the
champions (of faith) 247

198. Athanasius VI (d. 1 129)

He is Abu al-Faraj of Amid of the Kamra family. He
became a monk at the Monastery of Mar Barsoum and
studied under Dionysius Modyana both Syriac and
religious sciences. He also studied and mastered tire
Arabic language, in which he could write skillfully. 248 He
was consecrated Patriarch of Antioch in 1091 and died
in 1129, after having ordained sixty-one metropolitans
and bishops. He was handsome, dignified and vener-
able, deeply in love with learning. He collected precious
books and carried them with him wherever he went. He
gave the office of the patriarchate the dignity which is
worthy of it He is criticized for nothing except his harsh
treatment of his subordinates.

199. BasiliusAbu Ghalib ibn al-Sabuni (d. 1129)

He is the brother of Yuhanna Said ibn al-Sabuni,

metropolitan of Melitene. Like his brother, he was a
learned man, well-versed in Syriac, Greek, philosophy
and theology. He resided at the Amish monastery.
Athanasius IV ordained him a bishop for Edessa in 1 1 01
but he suspended him in the same year. He was then
excommunicated for his show of stubbornness, rebel-
lion and arrogance. He remained excommunicated
until the death of the patriarch. He was re-instated by
Patriarch Yuhanna XI in a local synod. But he soon died
in 1129, and perhaps the troubles which beset him
prevented him from utilizing his knowledge. There-
fore, we know not whether he composed anything.

200. The Monk Michael of Mar ash (d. 1138)

The monk Michael came from the country around
Marash. He became a monk at the Monastery of Mar
Gurgis (George) Kaslyiod in the Black Mountain. Later
he moved to the Monastery of the Magdalene in Jerusa-
lem where he wrote a service book for the whole year. At

the end of this service book he appended a useful
account in eleven pages containing the history of some
of the metropolitans of Jerusalem particularly Ignatius
III, from the Kaddana family and his restoration of the
two villages Beth Arif and Adasiyya from the usurping
commander Godfrey through the effort of King Fulk. 249
This account has been translated into French by Abbe
Martin in 1889, who greatly praised the author for
filling a gap in the history of the See of Jerusalem. 250

201. The priest Ebdocos (Eudochos) of Melitene

Ebdocos was a righteous and venerable man. It is

most likely that he studied and was graduated from the
school of Ibn Modyana. He took a position at the school
of Melitene to teach Syriac, perhaps in the middle of the
twelfth century. Both Jacob of Bartulli in his book The
Dialogue and Bar Hebraeus in the commentary on his
versified grammar have referred to him. Ebdocos wrote
a book whose subject matter is based on the discussions
that took place in learned circle, called Rules of Reading.
This book is a philological collection of the irregular
terms and their derivatives which occur in both Testa-
ments as well as the writings of the Fathers of the
Church. Based on the writings of ancient learned men
it is amplified with his own additions. However, this
book is not properly organized. Adding to its disorgani-
zation are the random marginal notes added to it by
later writers. The book is to be found in many libraries.
Anton Baumstark, who upon reading a copy of this
book in Paris Ms. 251, in which a certain transcriber
named Yeshu added to his name the epithet “Siluba”
meaning “wretched, "erroneously thought that the name
of this transcriber is Yeshu Siluba. 25 '

202. Timothy, metropolitan of Karkar (d. 1143)

He is known as Ibn Basil. He became a monk and

studied in the Monastery of Sarjisiyya where he also
became reputed for his virtue and godliness. He was
consecrated a metropolitan for Karkar in 1 109. He went
to Jerusalem to perform the pilgrimage. He died in
1143 according to Michael the Great 252 and Bar
Hebraeus 255 and not in 1169 as some writers have
thought. 254 He was a proficient poet whose poetry is
distinguished by the beauty of its style, rhythm, natural-
ness and profound themes. This is attested by his excel-
lent long poem on the Assumption of the Virgin, which
is considered one of the gems of poetry. This poem has
been published. 255 He also composed another poem in
the dodecasyllabic meter in thirty-five pages in which he
described the piety of the ascetics Makarius, Yuhanna
(John) and Bishway the Egyptian and Maximus and
Domatius the Greeks. 256 He also wrote a husoyo for their
festivals.

203. Yuhanna (John) ibn Andrew (d. 1156)

A proficient writer and poet, he was born at Farzman
in the vicinity of Raban. He mastered both the Syriac

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and the Armenian languages. He became a monk, was
ordained a priest and joined the service of Patriarch
Athanasius VI who ordained him a metropolitan for
Manbij around 1124. He was an eloquent and a very
efficient disputant who had retorted many opponents
and envious men. However, he was arrogant and brag-
gart about his knowledge. He thought little of the
patriarch, whofor his arrogance dismissed him from his
diocese and treated him harshly. After three lonely
years of estrangement he realized that eminence in
knowledge is no substitute for obedience to the head of
the Church. He then humbled himself and returned to
the foldand waswelcomed by the patriarch, who treated
him kindly and restored him to his diocese. Afterwards,
he was transferred to Kharshana and finally to Tur
Abdin in 1 155. He died at the beginning of the follow-
ing year.

Of his writings are the following:

1. An excellent dodecasyllabic poem consisting of
five hundred and five lines in seventy pages. He com-
posed it in 1 155 and addressed it to his friend the monk
Michael in Acre. He began it with the aphorism “There
is a time to speak and a time to be silent.” Each distich
of its lines begins with letters of another poem in the
pentasyllable meter. It begins thus: “To our brother
Michael in Palestine” and ends with a letter of a third
poem of the same meter beginning thus: ‘John who
residing in parts of Syria.” In this poem he criticized
acrimoniously the policy of the clergy in his time,
namely those priests and deacons who rebelled against
their bishops. He rebuked the monks who violated their
monastic rules by spending their time making money
rather than by laboring in vineyards and olive groves.
He particularly rebuked the monks of the Monastery of
St Barsoum for their highhandedness and greed in
collecting taxes in the name of the saint and their
disobedience to their superiors and the simony which
was practiced by some of them. He also composed and
addressed to the same monk a symbolic poem in the
pentasyllable meter covering five pages beginning thus:
“In reply to your quest not your expectation.” He then
goes on to say that his right hand has become tired
because of the many letters he has written and sent in
vain to Palestine. Moreover, he reprimanded a friend
who turned against him and described love most beau-
tifully, demonstrating that he is a powerful and efficient
poet who has the ability to manipulate both form and
content There are two copies of these letters, one in
London 257 and the other in our library.

2. A testimony of Ibn Andrews’ natural and beautiful
poetry is his madrash (metrical song) entitled, “Eulogies
composed and chanted about himself in repentance.”
This madrashis sung in the melody: “Grant us, Lord, to
see our departed ones in the kingdom of Heaven on the
day of resurrection.” It begins thus: “How great my need
ismysonjohn foran eloquent tongue and clear thoughts
to cry and bewail myself bitterly.” One hundred and

twenty-seven lines of this madrash have been preserved
and entered in his lifetime in the book for the burial of
priests and church dignitaries. It was spread through-
out the countries where there were Syrian churches, as
we read in a vellum manuscript in the Boston library. 258
One finds in it smooth words and profound and inven-
tive themes. Indeed, it is a poem of tears and compas-
sionate sentiment exquisitely composed. 259

3. Ten lines of a madrash in the melody of “Rise up, O
Paul,” on repentance. It is of the most tender and
touching religious poetry. It begins thus: “I have con-
templated deeply this world.” Two of it entered the
“Treasure of Songs.” 280 These poems, which demon-
strate that their composer is an able, natural and imagi-
native poet, consist of one hundred pages.

4. A lost book in which he refu tedj ohn, metropolitan
of Mardin for his claim that calamities do not afflict men
by the order of God. 261

5. A polemical treatise in which he disputed with
learned men of the Armenians for blaming some cus-
toms of our Church. It consists of nine chapters of fifty-
one pages. 262

6. He translated from the Armenian into Syriac those
portions which he was able to obtain of the treatise of
Krikor II (Gregory) the Armenian Catholicos, 265 which
he wrote in reply to the patriarch John X bar Shushan.
He gave this translation to Bar Salibi, who wrote a
refutation of the same. 264

7. He wrote a maymar (poem) in Armenian in refu-
tation of the Armenian Catholicos Krikor III. 285 This
Krikor apparently criticized some customs of the Syr-
ians and when he read his refutation he burned the two
maymars. 2B6 It is likely that the pen of this learned man
yielded more poems and fragments of prose which have
been lost to us.

204. The Priest Saliba of Qarikara (d. 1164)

Saliba was born at Qarikara, a village of Melitene and
was ordained a priest. When he became a widower he
became a monk and devoted his efforts to learning. He
taught at Melitene where he also became renowned for
his knowledge. He wrote a treatise in reply to John,
metropolitan of Mardin 267 and was engaged in vocaliz-
ing the irregular terms in the hymns of St. Ephraim. 268
He was the one who requested Bar Salibi to write most
of his books. He died in 1 146.

205. Ignatius II, maphrian of the East (d. 1164)

He is Lazarus, son of the priest Hasan. He was bom

at the village Ibra in the environs of Jubas and studied
at Melitene. He became a monk at the Monastery of
Saijisiyya and was distinguished for his intelligence,
knowledge and piety. He was consecrated a maphrian
of the East and was given the name Ignatius in October,
1 142. He proved worthy of this position, since he was an
able man in word and deed. In 1 161 he was delegated by
Jamal al-Din the governor of Mosul to go on a mission

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

to the king of the Georgians to free the Muslim captives.
The king went out to receive him, honored him and
answered his quest 269 He wrote an anaphora beginning
thus: “O, Judge ofjudges and God of gods the hope of
every human being.” 270 He died on June 14, 1164.

206. John, metropolitan of Mardin (d. 1165)

He is Yusuf (Joseph) of Edessa. He became a monk
in the Mountain of Edessa and in 1 1 25, for his virtuous
life was ordained a metropolitan of Mardin and its
environs: Dara, Khabura, Kafrtut and Tallbsam. At his
ordination he was given the name John and worked
hard to improve conditions in his diocese. He reno-
vated the Monastery of Mar Hananya together with
twenty-four more monasteries and churches, some of
which were newly constructed. He filled the monaster-
ies with monks and enacted for them canons in a
council he convened in the former monastery presided
by Maphrian Ignatius II in 1153. He was distinguished
for his proficiency in architectural engineering and he
spent his life following the most commendable prin-
ciples of architecture. He became focus of attention
and left behind a praiseworthy record. He died on July
12, 1165. Patriarch Michael instituted a day in his
commemoration and eulogized him in a poem. 271

When Zangi conquered al-Ruha (Edessa) in 1144
and calamities afflicted its inhabitants, John wrote a
book in which he maintained that these calamities have
afflicted the city for temporal reasons. He argued that if
there was an army in the city nothing would have
happened to it Therefore, the will of God has nothing
to do with these calamities. He reached this conclusion
arbitrarily and for this reason it was refuted by four of his
contemporary learned men.

He enacted forty canons in the formerly mentioned
council and followed them by forty-one more for the
monks of his own diocese. 272 Shortly before the year
1 155 he composed a treatise about the mystery of the
Holy Chrism and its composition, addressed to a certain
Yeshu. In this treatise, which covers thirty-six pages, he
discussed some ritualistic subjects. 275 His style is medio-
cre and he himself is considered a mediocre writer.
Some Orientalists have erroneously attributed to him
the anaphora of Iyawannis Jacob Shakko, dated 1231.

207. Basilius ibn Shumanna (d. 1169)

He is Abu al-Faraj of Edessa, a descendant of the
noble Shumanna family. His brother Michael was the
minister of Joscelin, the Frankish prince of Edessa. 274
Abu al-Faraj studied church and literary sciences, be-
came a monk and was elevated to the priesthood. He
went to Constantinople in 1122, was ordained a metro-
politan ofKesum in 1 129 and then transferred to Edessa
where he witnessed its destruction twice as a result of
wars. Therefore, he traveled throughout the countries
seeking aid for Edessa. He obtained from the patriarch
the diocese of Sibaberk and its environs to the north

which until then was part of the diocese of Edessa. He
was an intelligent and indefatigable dignitary. He knew
Arabic besides Syriac and was highly respected by the
great men of his generation. He died an old man in
1169.

Of his writings are the following:

1 . The history of Edessa from ancien t times to his own
time, which was quoted and used by Michael the Great
and the Edessene chronicler. 275

2. A historical tract about the invasion of the Comans
byjohn II Coinnenus (1118-1144) the Byzantine em-
peror which he wrote at Constantinople in 1 1 22.

3. A treatise in which he defended himself for trans-
ferring from the diocese of Kesum to Edessa, proving
that he did not do so except by the approval of the
patriarch and the council.

4. A refutation of those who maintain that the bless-
ing of the Lord to King Abgar and his city is no more.

5. Three poems in the dodecasyllabic meter on the
calamity of Edessa and its aftermath. He composed these
poems while he was detained at the Byzantine Citadel for
three years by order ofjoscelin because some Edessenes
slandered him to Joscelin. 276 These poems are lost

208. Iliyya, metropolitan ofKesum (d. 1171)

Iliyya comes from the Shakkukum family. He be-
came a monk at the Madiq Monastery and became the
secretary of Patriarch Athanasius VIII . He was one of the
most learned men in his time. He was ordained a
metropolitan of Kesum and was given the name
Iyawannis (John) in the year 1143. Mar Michael said the
following about him: “Iyawannis was well versed in the
divine books. He was sweet in conversation and his word
was heard in the Church.” The patriarch sent him on a
mission to the Emperor Manuel I Comnenus (1143-
1180), who was attempting to unite the Syrians, the
Armenians and the Byzantines. He died at the Monastery
of Mar Barsoum on September 24, 11 71. He wrote a
refutation of John, metropolitan of Mardin and a brief
history of the contemporary events in his time. He men-
tioned that he collected his information from many
sources for the benefit of writers of later generations. This
history was incorporated by Michael into his own
chronicle. 277

209. Dionysius Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of
Amid (d. 1171)

A unique and distinguished Syrian dignitary, the
pride of Melitene and a staunch defender of Christian-
ity as well as of those who have been converted to
Orthodoxy. A very learned man and writer, Bar Salibi
excelled in his commentary on the Floly Scriptures,
based on the ideas of former commentators butadorned
with his own conclusions. Indeed, his commentary is
the best and most popular of his writings. It is sufficient
proof of his keen mind, industry, amazing fortitude and
profound scholarship. He continued to work with zeal

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and patience despite hardships and the ill-will of envi-
ous men. 218 He was kind in speech, upright, God-fearing
and respectful of church canons. He was a true Syrian
who loved his own people and defended them with his
tongue and writing, until he went to his reward, leaving
behind him a magnificent legacy. Michael the Great
and Bar Hebraeus had this to say about him, “Bar Salibi
wasa master and logician. He was the star of his time. He
wrote many books and commentaries, all of which are
well-written. The Church was overwhelmed with sad-
ness over his loss.” The former described him as a
champion like Jacob of Edessa, while the latter made his
commentaries mandatory for study by the clergy. 279 His
prose writings show him to be powerful in explaining
things in detail. In his polemics he is expansive to a
boring degree. His style is natural and clear. But we
received nothing of his poetry so that we might relish its
taste.

Bar Salibi was born in Melitene where he also studied
the sciences of language, literature, history, jurispru-
dence, philosophy and theology under the masters in
that city. He was ordained a deacon and remained a
time studying religious sciences until he was counted as
one of the eminent theologians. When the patriarch
and the Holy Council saw his refutation of the book of
Metropolitan John of Mardin in which he maitained
that the will of God had nothing to do with the calami-
ties which afflicted Edessa, they found it the best refuta-
tion ever written about this subject and one which is in
conformity with church belief. As a result, Patriarch
Athanasius VTI rewarded him by ordaining him a priest
and then a metropolitan for the diocese of Marash in
October, 1148, giving him the name Dionysius. This is
evident from a marginal note by one of his contempo-
raries who commented on his book Disputations in
1 197. 280 This is also confirmed by Bar Salibi himself, who
stated in his book A Commentary on Logic that he finished
the Prior Apodictics in October 1460, of the Greek
calendar, which is equivalent to the formerly men-
tioned year when he was a bishop. 281 The sequence of
events also proves that he was ordained in 1148. The
year 1154 which Orientalists fixed for his ordination,
based on the chronicles of Michael the Great and Bar
Hebraeus is erroneous. In 1155 the diocese of Manbij
was annexed to his own diocese and in the following
year an Armenian band treacherously attacked Marash,
robbed and expelled the people including Bar Salibi,
showing no respect for his position. He was able to free
himself and walk to the Kasliyud Monastery. 282 How-
ever, it is most likely that he remained in Melitene
writing until 1 167, when he was transferred to Amid. He
showed a great ability in running the diocese aided by
his secretary, the deacon Ibrahim who also studied
under him. He renovated the church of Amid 283 and
departed this life at the end of November 1 171 . He was
buried in the great church of Amid and was succeeded
by his secretary.

Following is a list of his writings:

1 . A commentary on the Books of the Old T estament
This is a literal as well as a mystical commentary. It is a
very detailed and unique commentary consisting of
several volumes. More than once he alluded to it in his
middle commentary. 284 It is likely that copyists made no
effort to transcribe it because of its massive size, and,
therefore, it was lost.

2. The middle commentary on the Old Testament.
This commentary is extremely voluminous consisting of
four volumes. It covers the commentary on Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Job, Joshua,
Judges, Samuel, Kings, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
the Song of Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel
and the twelve minor prophets and the Wisdom of the
son ofSirach. The commentary on the Book of Susanna
is contained in one copy only. 285

Each book has two commentaries, literal and spiri-
tual. Some of them are based on the Pshitto version and
others on the Septuagint. To the Psalms he added yet a
third symbolic commentary and prefaced it with thirty-
two chapters by Bar Kifa with the effect that this com-
mentary alone totalled one hundred twenty-seven. His
sources were the commentaries of St. Ephraim,
Athanasius, Basilius, Gregory the theologian, Gregory
of Nyssa,John Chrysostom, Cyril, Hysichius of Jerusa-
lem, Jacob of Saruj, Philoxinus of Mabug, Severus,
Daniel, Andrew of Jerusalem, Jacob of Edessa, Moses
bar Kifa and the deacon Zura of Nisibin. He made use
of these sources in his commentary on the first Books of
the Scripture until the Psalms.

There are six copies of this noble book. Four of these
are in the library of Zafaran transcribed between 1189-
1594, all of which are deficient except the last one. 286
Another copy is in our bishopric library in Mosul,
transcribed in the first or the third decade of the
fifteenth century. It contains the chapters of Bar Kifa
and a good tractate in five pages of the hymn of
Hippolytus the Roman about Susanna. It is written in
beautiful handwriting and consists of 1220 large-size
pages. Another copy is in Paris 287 and there are seven
more recently transcribed copies, one of which is in our
library. 288 We have translated into Arabic twenty-nine
chapters of the commentary on Isaiah and added unto
it comments from Bar Hebraeus’s Storehouse of Secrets
and published it. 289

3. A commentary on all of the New Testament, that
is, the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles
and Revelation. His sources were the writings of St.
Ephraim, St. Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria,
Philoxenus of Mabug, Severus of Antioch, Jacob of
Edessa, Iyawannis (John) of Dara and Bar Kifa. Occa-
sionally he mentioned Hippolytus, Africanus, Eusebius
of Ceasarea, Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory
of Nyssa, Epiphanius, Antiochus bishop of Acre,
Theodotus bishop of Ancyra, Mar Isaac, George, bishop
of the Arabs, David bar Paul, Jacob, bishop of Ana and

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Lazarus bar Moses. The commentary on the Gospels has
seven copies, the oldest of which is in our library. It is a
very old copy of small size and slightly imperfect at the
beginning and at the end. It is written in a pleasing
handwriting and contains many marginal notes, com-
ments, revisions and additions, all in the original hand-
writing. It is likely that this copy is the original draft of
the author. The remaining copies are in Paris, 2790
Dublin, 291 London, 292 Sadad, 293 and Jerusalem. 294
Sedlacek and Chabot translated into Latin and pub-
lished half of the commentary on the Gospel according
to St. Matthew, the Acts, the Epistles and Revelation.
The monk Abd al-Nur of Amid translated the commen-
tary on the Gospels into Arabic in 1 755 but his transla-
tion is of mediocre quality.

4. A commentary on the book attributed to Dionysius
the Areopagite. It is a medium-sized volume consisting
of four hundred seventy pages. We found a unique and
ancient copy of this book in Aleppo, completed about
the thirteenth century. 295

5. A commentary on the Hundred Aphorisms (Six
Centuries) byEuagriusPontiuswhichhewrotein 1165. 296

6. A commentary of the book of Literature by Basilius
of Caesarea.

7. A commentary on the writings of Gregory of Nyssa.

8. A commentary on the writings of Cyril of Alexan-
dria.

9. A commentary on the writings of Gregory the
Theologian.

10. A commentary on the writings of Severus of
Antioch.

1 1 . A commentary on the book of the patriarch Peter
of Callinicus. These six books are lost. 297

12. The book of Theology. He mentioned this book in
his introductions to his Disputations and Commentary on
the Gospels and called it The Compendium. 1 1 deals with the
Trinity, the mystery of the Incarnation, the Tree of Life,
celestial beings like angels and devils, the rational soul,
priesthood, the sun, the moon, the stars, the clouds, the
elements, springs and rivers, tangible paradise, human
bodies and resurrection and judgment, all in twenty
chapters. He writes of faith, the Cross, the mysteries of
the Church and the Chrism in fifty-three chapters;
Baptism in nine chapters; the Eucharist in fifteen chap-
ters; and ecclesiastical habits, procession and pictures.
In our library there is an old copy of this very sizable
book, transcribed about 1207, with forty pages missing
from it Parts of it are included within the Mosul copy.
Michael the Great referred to it. 298

13. The book of Disputations containing thirty chap-
ters against the Muslims and parts of the Quran in
Syriac, 299 nine chapters against thejews, two treatises in
eighty chapters against the Chalcedonian Greeks (in
another copy they are hundred and three chapters),
two treatises in thirty-eight chapters against the
Nestorians, and nine chapters against the Armenians.
He began writingit in Marash, worked over it in Melitene

and completed it in Amid. He intended it as the second
volume of his book of theology, although he included
disputations against the Greeks and the Armenians in
the chapter on the divine incarnation.

This book has four copies: 1 ) our own copy which has
already been mentioned, consisting of 726 large-size
pages. 2) A copy in Mosul transcribed in the fourteenth
century consisting of 900 pages of which 220 pages are
missing, largely from the beginning and a few at the
end. It begins with the resurrection, judgment, faith,
the Cross, the Chrism and Baptism. 3) The Zafaran
copy 500 transcribed in 1502 consisting of 938 pages. In
1 197 an anonymous scribe wrote an interesting intro-
duction to it and classified it into chapters. 4) The
Birmingham 301 copy which is copied from the Mosul
version in 1873. A portion of it exists in the Vatican
library. 302 However, there is some difference in the
number of chapters between the second and the third
copies.

1 4. A book similar to the book of the Six Days. i0i

15. A commentary on the Liturgy which he wrote in
Amid in response to the request to Ignatius IV of Melitene,
metropolitan of Jerusalem. There are two copies of this
book; one is written in detail and covers eighty-two large
pages. 304 It was published by Labourt in 1903.

1 6. A book on Divine Providence in which he refuted
the writing of the Metropolitan of Mardin. Michael the
Great reproduced two tractats of it in his Chronicle . 305

17. The book of letters which he mentioned in his
Disputations, which he wrote, as he says, against the
opponents. Few letters of it in three pages were found
in Mosul. 306

18. A commentary on Logic which he wrote in 1148.
It contains a commentary on the Isagoge in three chap-
ters, followed by a commentary on the Categories after he
abridged the lengthy comraen tary of expositors, a corn-
men tary on Interpretalionin five chapters, a commentary
on the Analylica Priora which he added many chapters
about the difficult parts and a commentary on the
Analylica Posteriora. Bar Salibi states that George, bishop
of the Arabs considered the Analytica Priora and the
Analetica Posteriora as the first book of the Apodictics x
because the themes of the two treatises are intertwined.
He did not comment on the second treatise of the
Apodictics because of the weak sight of its transcribers
and expositors in the two languages as he had discov-
ered. Also scholars were not in need of it because its
meaning has been known to the students of philosophy.
He added, “If we found a sound exposition of it we will
then summarize it.” Bar Salibi went on to write a com-
mentary on eight books of Aristotle beginning with
Physics until the Theology which has been compiled by
Nikolaus the Orator. This book has a unique copy
written in fine handwriting consisting of 770 pages. The
commentary on Animals followed by a treatise on geom-
etry. 307

19. Ten chapters in reply against the deacon Yeshu

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who preferred the Byzantine ritual. It is a cogent and
well-written treatise demonstrating the author’s pro-
found knowledge in Church rituals. It was published by
Mingana, according to an old copy in the Didascalia.

20. A refutation of the heresy of the Phantasiats
which had a trace among the Armenians. Also a polemi-
cal argument with the Armenian Catholicos Kiwark III,
in which he tried to refute the letter of John bar
Shushan, patriarch of Antioch. The treatise of Kiwark
reached our author through Basil Abbot of the Monas-
tery of Mar Barsoum when he was attending the Council
in 1169. This refutation consists of seventy-two pages
and half of it is missing.* 08 It is the same refutation
translated by Metropolitan Bar Andrew into Syriac.

21. A treatise he wrote at Mabug in nine chapters in
reply to Narsis IV Shinurhali the Armenian Catholicos
of the Byzantine Citadel, refuting the Catholicos’s claims.
Another copy mentions that Nerses was a bishop and a
brother of the Catholicos. Yet another copy mentions
that he wrote this letter in Marash and addressed it to
the Catholicos.* 09

22. A compendium history he wrote in response to
the request of some people. It contains the church
events beginning with the biography of Basilius bar
Shumanna, metropolitan of Edessa. The world events
begin with the death ofjohn II Comnenus and the rise
of Manuel I Commenus to power in 1144 until the end
of his life. Michael the Great quoted profusely from it.* 10
But the original is lost.

23. A short chronicle of the lives of Church fathers
and martyrs.* 11

24. A compendium of Apostolic canons and the
canons of the councils which he presented to the
Patriarch Michael.’ 12

25. Two treatises on sins, vows, oblations and atone-
ment. They contain forty-five canons; according to
another copy, seventy-four canons. He wrote these
treatises in response to the request of Habakuk, abbot
of the Fusqin Monastery and the monk Simon* 1 ’ while
he was at a certain monastery in the Karkar country.
They also contain a service prayer to be recited over the
penitents.* 14

26. A large collection containing church hymns.* 15

27. A homily he delivered at the installation cer-
emony of Patriarch Michael at the Monastery of Mar
Hananya. It begins thus: “Beloved, today is the day of
delight and joy.” This homily entered the book of
ordinations. It was published by Chabot.’ 16 He also
composed a homily on the Chrism and a tract which he
appended to Bar Kifa’s homily on the monks’ assump-
tion of the habit* 17

28. Two odes in the dodecasyllabic meter on the two
invasions and calamities of Edessa in 1 144. They were
mentioned by Michael the Great;* 18 three odes on the
destruction of Marash in 1156;* 19 two odes in the
heptasyllabic and the dodecasyllabic meters on the
anecdote of a young woman from Talafar who openly

proclaimed her conversion to Christianity amidst bran-
dished swords and threats. They also tell how this
courageous young woman saved her life and that of the
Maphrian Ignatius Lazarus and then became a nun in
1 159.’ 20 These seven odes are lost. He also composed
two odes on the Passion of our Lord in body* 21 and those
who did not take Holy Communion in forty days.’ 22

29. Two liturgies.* 2 * The first one begins with: “Grant
us Lord at this time love and harmony.” The second
begins with: “Lord, who thou art true and ultimate love
grant us.’ 24 He also wrote two prayers for the kiss of
peace for the two Masses of Maundy Thursday and the
Sabbath of the Annunciation; a beautiful liturgy in
description of the Holy Eucharist and a profound tract
to be recited during the administration of the bread of
the Eucharist, which has become a constitution for the
Mass.’ 25

30. Six husoyos he wrote in 1 159 for the sanctification
of the church, the third hour of the Christmas festival,
the festival of Mar Barsoum, the Wednesday of the
commemoration of King Abgar and the commemora-
tion of the Forty Martyrs. These husoyos have entered
Church services.

31. A commentary on the Apostles’ Creed.* 26

Michael the Great had composed a tractor an ode on

the works and achievements of this eminent Doctor of
the Church, 527 whose loss we regret.

210. Abu Ghalib, bishop of Jihan (d. 1177)

Abu Ghalib, the famous ascetic, tells us that he spent
seventy years practicing the ascetic life. 528 In 1137 he
resided in the Monastery of the King’s Table, which
later was called the Monastery of Abu Ghalib* 29 after
him. Because of his piety he was twice among the
candidates for the patriarchate. In 1169 the patriarch
Michael ordained him a bishop of Jihan and gave him
the name Athanasius. He died in 1177, having passed
eighty years of age.

Abu Ghalib wrote twenty-five books on monasticism
and asceticism. Nothing remains of them excepta large
volume which we copied from an only copy in Mosul,
transcribed in the sixteenth century. This copy had
been bought by the Metropolitan Karas for the monks
of the Monastery of Mar Bahnam in 1728. This work is
without title but it is known as the Book of Athanasius,
bishop of Jihan, Containing Homilies and Exhortations for
Monastic Life. The book consists of three hundred fifty-
seven large-size pages. He wrote it in the same year in
which he died and alluded in the introduction to his
other twen ty-four books.’* 0 His style is simple but medio-
cre and is not free from extreme ideas and scathing
criticism. He also composed two odes in the
dodecasyllabic meters, scolding lazy monks. I believe
that he obtained knowledge through private reading,
for his formal education was little. I have also found
three chapters by him in the Zafaran,” 1 Mar Matta and
Berlin libraries.” 2

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

211. Ignatius Roman us, metropolitan of Jerusalem
(d. 1183)

Romanus was a native of Melitene. He became a
monk-priest at the Monastery of the Magdalene in
Jerusalem in 1138. At this monastery he transcribed a
Gospel for the use of the Church in the Estrangelo
script, to which he appended an historical tract in eight
pages. In it he discussed the achievements of his prede-
cessor Ignatius III of the Kaddana family and his resto-
ration of the Church endowments according to the
writing of the monk Michael of Marash. He also men-
tioned the year of the death of the metropolitan. These
two tracts reached Abbe Martin, the Orientalist, who
appreciated them tremendously, for their connection
with the history of the Church of Jerusalem. Martin
translated them and published them in French. 355 The
next year, that is, 11 39 he was ordained Metropolitan of
Jerusalem and was named Ignatius, the fourth one to
assume this name. After performing many good works,
he died in 1183. He also composed a creed of faith
mentioned in the margin of the list of bishops. 554

212. The Monk Aaron.

Aaron was bom in Mesopotamia and became a monk
in the Monastery of Mar Barsoum in Melitene. He was
a contemporary of the patriarch Michael. About 1 ISO-
1183 he composed in the name of the abbot and of the
monks of the monastery a letter in twenty pages ad-
dressed to Theodosius II, patriarch of Constantinople
( 1 1 78-1 183) , and Alexius II Comnenus ( 1 1 80-1 1 83) , in
reply to their invitation for the unity of the churches.
This invitation was addressed to him by a certain old
monk named Bartholmew. In this letter he proved the
Orthodoxy of the faith of the Syrians and refuted the
invitation in a pleasant and profound manner. The
original Syriac of this letter is lost but it survives in a weak
and colloquial Arabic translation. 335

213. Ibn Wahbun (d. 1193)

He is Theodore the son of the priest Sahdo, the son
of Wahbun of Melitene. In his youth he went to Edessa
and then tojerusalem seeking an ecclesiastical career,
but to no avail. Then he joined the patriarchal resi-
dence of the patriarch Michael and studied under him.
He was intelligent and excelled in the Syriac, Greek,
Arabic and Armenian languages. He was also well-
versed in philosophy. He became a monk at the Monas-
tery of Mar Barsoum, was ordained a priest and became
the patriarch’s secretary. The patriarch delegated him
to Qalat al-Rum to discuss the question of unity carried
by the philosopher Theorianus the emissary of Manuel
I, Comnenus. He spoke for the Armenians who found
it difficult to challenge the philosophical argument of
Theorianus. 336

Despite his learning bar Wahbun was wicked and had
no piety or humility. Although he enjoyed the patriarch’s
favor yet, arrogant and ungrateful, he connived with

four troublemaking expelled bishops who ordained
him an anti-patriarch, naming him John in 1180. A
council met and divested him of the false position he
had assumed and denied him the use of his priestly
functions. When he continued his disobedience the
patriarch finally excommunicated him. He spent the
rest of his life wandering until he died in 1 193.

Ibn Wahbun’s writings are as follows:

1 . A short commentary on the Eucharistic service in
twenty-nine chapters covering fifty pages which he com-
piled from the writings of the Fathers. It is arranged in
the form of questions and answers. It also contains
eighteen treatises of the exposition of the mysteries of
the Church, its rituals, officials and objects such as the
bell, the altar, the censor, the table of life, the paten and
the cup, the anaphora, the tablilho, the church, the
pulpit, the canopy, the procession, the spoon, the dea-
con, the archdeacon, the hypodiacon, the priest, the
bishop, the monk, worshipping the Cross and the
Chrism. 327

2. A liturgy which he compiled from liturgies of the
Fathers beginning thus: “Almighty and incomprehen-
sible Lord and God.” This prayer is by Philoxenus of
Mabug. 328

3. Two detailed letters: the first in eight pages ad-
dressed to John, metropolitan of Tarsus defending
himself. It is full of falsification. 339 In the second letter,
addressed to the patriarch Michael, he feigns repen-
tance and reconciliation. He wrote this letter in five
pages from Jerusalem. 540

4. Two odes in the dodecasyllabic and the
heptasyllabic meters: one addressed to the patriarch
and the other to his nephew the monk Yeshu. He began
and ended the latter with the first letter of the name of
his addressee. 341

The prose writing of Bar Wahbun is smooth but lacks
efficiency. His poetry is mediocre and tends to be weak
and forced, as in the case of his second ode. Sometimes
he tided his writings by stating, “This is written by the
oppressed and the persecuted Theodore” or simply
“The persecuted person.” We found in Basibrina three
dodecasyllabic and heptasyllabic odes with this tide in
praise of the two martyr Catholicos Simon and
Barbashmin in the handwriting of the monk-priest
MalkeSaqo (d. 1490). Perhaps they are ofBar Wahbun’s
composition.

214. Mar Michael the Great (d. 1199)

A great Father of the church and die choicest of the
patriarchs of Antioch and a famous historian, Michael
was bom at Melitene in 1126. His father the priest Iliyya
(Elijah) was from the Qandasi family. Michael’s uncle is
Athanasius Zakka (Zacheas) , metropolitan of Ayn Zarba
(d. 1 1 66) . He became a monk at the Monastery of Mar
Barsoum where he also was educated. He was ordained
a priest and became the abbot of the monastery. The
Holy Synod unanimously elected him a patriarch for

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the Apostolic throne, but he did not accept his election
until the bishops promised to adhere to the canons of
the Church. He was consecrated on October 18, 1166,
and fulfilled his office competently for thirty-three
years and twenty days. He died on November 7, 1199.
He was good looking, energetic and had beautiful
handwriting. He spent his day in looking after Church
matters and in transcribing significant manuscripts; he
devoted the night to the writing of letters. He tran-
scribed a Gospel on vellum in the Estrangelo script,
gilded its pages and bound it with a silver cover. 542 He
compiled all the hymns of St. Ephraim and Jacob of
Saruj in several copies, which he transcribed personally.
Also he marked the service books of ordinadons, prin-
cipal festivals and prayers with diacritical points with
great care, and preserved them in one huge volume. 345

Following are his writings:

1. A well-known universal history containing both
world and ecclesiastical events from the creation until
1 193. He wrote it in Syriac in several volumes, each page
containing three columns: one for the ecclesiastical
history, one for world history and the third for strange
events and natural phenomena. His sources were many
histories - some of which were known, but the majority
are lost. Some of these are the histories of Julius
Africanus, Andronecus, Eusebius of Cesarea, Valianus
the Alexandrine monk (middle of the fourth century),
Socrates, Sozomen, Zachariah of Mitylene, Qura of
Batnan.John of Asia, Jacob of Edessa, John of Atharb,
Dionysius of Tall Mahre, Ignatius of Melitene, Iliyya of
Kesum and Bar Salibi. He also used Arabic sources. This
history consists of eight hundred large-size pages, writ-
ten in fine handwriting. It is a very important history. A
single copy of it was found at the library in al-Ruha
(Edessa) in the handwriting of the Metropolitan
Michael of Urbish, which he completed while still a
monkin 1598. Only nineteen pages of it are missing.
It was translated into French and published by Chabot
in five volumes in 1899-1918. It was also translated
into colloquial Arabic by John Shuqayr of Sadad,
metropolitan of Damascus, in 1759. There are five
copies of this translation. 344 In 1245 the priest Yeshu
of Hism Kifa resident of Qalat al-Rum, translated an
abridgement of it into Armenian. This translation
was revised by the monk Vartan and published in
Jerusalem in 1870-1871. The same was translated
into French and published by Laglois. 545 The great-
est benefit of this history is that it contains the lists of
the names of the patriarchs of the four major Sees,
particularly the See of Antioch, together with the
dioceses of Takrit, Jerusalem, Edessa, Melitene and
Amid as well as the list of the bishops of the Syrian
church from 793 to 1199, numbering 950 with infor-
mation about their monasteries. There is another
copy of these lists which have enriched ecclesiastical
history transcribed at the beginning of the sixteenth
century 546 at Cambridge.

2. A confession of faith he wrote at Antioch and
addressed to the Emperor Manuel I in 1 169.

3. A treatise or an ode in which he described the traits
and writings of Dionysius bar Salibi. 547

4. A recommendation for Bar Wahbun when he sent
him to meet with the Byzantine delegate to discuss the
unity of the churches in 1172. 548

5. Twenty-nine canons which he enacted at the Mon-
astery of Mar Hananya, followed by twelve more canons
he enacted in 1174. 549

6. A treatise he wrote in 1178, refuting the
Albingensians, whose heresy had appeared in France. 350

7. A liturgy in sixteen pages arranged according to
the letters of the alphabet. It begins thus: “Almighty
God and Lord of all, make us worthy to draw near to this
great divine mystery.” 551

8. Homilies for feasts and Sundays. The Edessene
Chronicler stated, “He (Michal) transcribed in his own
handwriting a huge volume containing homilies for the
whole year and added unto it his own homilies for
festivals and Sundays, which were not included in it.” 552

9. Two husoyos, one of them for Mar Barsoum; both
have entered the church rite.

1 0. He revised the life story of Mar Abhai the ascetic
bishop, in 1185. This life story and other narratives
which he had abridged and recorded in his history were
written by John Rufus. They contain unsubstantiated
information.

1 1. A heptasyllabic ode he composed in 1 159 on the
innocent young woman from Talafar already men-
tioned in the biography of Bar Salibi. 353 Two more
dodecasyllabic odes, one of them in praise of theachieve-
mentsofjohn, metropolitan ofMardin (d. 1165), which
he composed in 1167; 354 the other in praise of Mar
Barsoum. We came upon a copy of the latter of which six
pages were missing and twenty-eight pages extant. 355

1 2. A treatise against the falsifications of Mark, son of
Qanbar the Copt, which he mentioned in his history. 356
He might have written it in Arabic.

Assemani has erroneously attributed to him an Ara-
bic book on receiving Holy Communion and Confes-
sion which, in fact, belongs to some Coptic writer.

Michael’s style is smooth but his verse is mediocre
and lacks creativeness.

215. The Physicians of the Twelfth Century.

In the twelfth century several physicians flourished.
Of these the Edessene chronicler 357 mentioned the
pious deacon Abu al-Yusr the church treasurer in 1100,
the physician and philosopher deacon Abu Sad of
Edessa whom Michael the Great criticized in 1138,
saying that his knowledge of astrology did him no good
to ward off danger and save him from being captured by
the Turks when they invaded Edessa. He also men-
tioned the Deacon Sahdo of the Shumanna family in
1 170, stating that, “He was a proficient physician and
logician well-versed in both Syriac and Arabic.”

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa, a proficient
physician, was a pious man who took care of poor
people. He was also greatly concerned with the Church
and its endowment, and had great position among the
rulers and the people. He died in 1191.

216. The Bishop John David of Amid (d. 1203)

This bishop was well-versed in the Syriac language.

He was a contemporary of the patriarch Michael whom
he probably ordained a bishop for Shalabdin about
1174. But he resigned his position and resided in the
Monastery of Mar Iliyya known as the Qanqart Monas-
tery near and Amid, where he devoted his time to the
study of philology. In 1203 he added to the volume of
the accentuation of the Holy Scriptures and the writings
of the Doctors of the Church eight large appendices
containing the accentuation and interpunction of the
hymns of St. Ephraim, numbering 203; the hymns of
Mar Isaac and Marjacob, 1 72 hymns; the homilies of the
Church Fathers for the whole year, 155 homilies; the life
stories of the ascetics, the Doctors of the Church and
martyrs, 127 stories, according to the copy at Mar
Barsoum Monastery; the book Paradiseby Patladius; the
life stories of the Egyptian ascetics by Jerome; The Six
Days byjacob of Edessa and his letter tojohn of Atharib;
the two books of The Six Days by Basil and Gregory of
Nyssa; and the lexicon of the physician Hunayn ibn
Ishaq. We found this information in a manuscript at
Basibrina which was lost during World War I.

217. Ignatius Sahdo, metropolitan of Jerusalem

He is Sahdo of Edessa, who together with his brother

Faris, became a monk in the Monastery of Barbara in
the Edessa Mountain, where they studied the science of
language, literature and religion. Shortly before 1149,
Sahdo went to the Monastery of the Magdalene in
Jerusalem for a time, then returned to his former
monastery only to go back once more to the Monastery
of the Magdalene to become its abbot. In 1 192 Faris was
ordained a metropolitan of Edessa under the name
Basilius. He was a competent man. In the followingyear
Sahdo was ordained a metropolitan for Jerusalem un-
der the name Ignatius, the fifth to have assumed this
name. He most likely died in the first decade of the
thirteenth century. In 1149 he had written a Gospel in
the Estrangelo script to which he appended an eight-
page tract about the calamities which befell Edessa in
1 144-1146, the events of the second Crusade, the fate of
the victims of Edessa and the noble works and assistance
of the metropolitan Romanus toward these victims.* 68

218. Ibrahim, bishop of Tallbsam(c. 1207)

Ibrahim is one of the bishops who were ordained by

the patriarch Michael about 1 1 80. For a time he headed
the dioceses of Amid, Tallbsam and Edessa. He was
excommunicated and then restored. He died shortly
after 1207. Despite his changing loyalties he was a man

of learning. He composed eight eloquent husoyos (pro-
pitiatory prayers) which have entered the rites of the
Church. Two of them are for the Apostles. He also wrote
husoyos for the Sabbath of Lazarus, St. Stephen, and one
for the New or Low Sunday. He arranged the husoyo for
the evening of the commemoration of St. Stephen
according to the letters of the alphabet and excelled in
the description of the Apostles in the husoyo devoted to
them.

219. Gregoriusjacob, maphrianof the East (d. 1214)

Gregoryjacob is the son of the priest Ibrahim, who

was son of the priest Iliyya Qandasi of Melitene. He
studied religious sciences at the residence of his uncle,
patriarch Michael. He became a monk and then was
ordained a priest. When he became renowned for his
learning his uncle ordained him maphrian of the East
in 1189. But he was not successful in his new position
because of the opposition of some of the eastern bish-
ops who ordained another person in his place. In the
end Gregoryjacob triumphed over his opponent. What
aggravated his troubles is that he supported his brother
Yeshu to succeed his uncle as a patriarch for sheer greed
and love of power in 1 200. He is to blame for his action
despite his honesty and eloquent preaching. He died in
1214. He composed a lengthy liturgy beginning with:
“Almighty and all powerful Lord,” which was approved
by his uncle. 359

220. Yeshu Saftana, “He of the Big Lip” (d. 1214)

Yeshu is a brother of Maphrian Jacob. He is nick-
named Saftana because his lower lip was big. He studied
at the Monastery of Mar Barsoum where he also became
a monk and a priest. When the patriarchal throne
became vacant by the death of his uncle, Patriarch
Michael, he was made an anti-patriarch through the
effort of his brother who supported him. He was named
Michael in 1200 after the ordination of Athanasius VIII
as the legitimate patriarch. Yeshu did a lot of harm to
the Church for his ambition to the patriarchal position
while the bishop and the believers detested him. After
the death of Athanasius some people tried to install him
as a patriarch but his mishandling the matter precluded
the realization of this goal. He spent the rest of his life
with little peace and died forlorn in 1214. Despite his
chastity and learning he was criticized for his haughti-
ness and stinginess. He compiled a book in twenty-one
chapters on the reasons for festivities, that is, the reason
for the festival of the Annunciation of the Virgin, the
reason for Christmas in one hundred twenty-five chap-
ters, the causes of the Entrance of our Lord into the
Temple in twenty-five chapters, the cause of Lent and
Maundy Thursday in sixteen chapters, a homily on the
washing of the feet and Good Friday in fifty chapters. A
copy of this book is in Paris. 360 There are also fragments
of it in Tur Abdin and eighty-seven chapters of the
homily on the Nativity at the Sharfa Monastery. 361 It was

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translated into mediocre Arabic. Yeshu also wrote a
lengthy liturgy beginning with: “O Lord who art the
master of all and the first righteousness who has no
equal.” 562

221. The Patriarch John Xn <d. 1220)

He is Yeshu, son of the priest Yuhanna (John). He
was born at a Roman village in Karkar and became a
monk at the Monastery of the Stranger Ascetics in the
Edessa Mountain. He was elevated to the priesthood
shortly before 1191 and became renowned for his
asceticism. He moved to the Shiro Monastery where he
studied Syriac and excelled in calligraphy. He tran-
scribed many manuscripts on vellum in the Estrangelo
script Manuscripts of the Gospels, are in Paris 565 and
the Edessene library in Aleppo. He was known as Yeshu
the Scribe. When his piety became well-known he was
elected as a patriarch of Antioch, was ordained on
August 31, 1208 and named John. He operated the
Church for twelve years until his death in 1220. He was
short and his body withered from ascetic practices.
Frequently, he was referred to as John the Stranger
Scribe, after his monastery, the Monastery of the Strang-
ers. We have read by him four odes in the dodecasyllabic
meter on repentance. The first ode is arranged accord-
ing to the letters of the alphabet It begins thus: “I shall
rise and return to my Father like the prodigal son and
be forgiven;” 564 the second one begins with: “Everlasting
God whose state is concealed from the heavenly be-
ings;” 565 the third, in four pages, begins with: “Brethren;
woe to me, a miserable sinner.” 566 It is a profound ode.
The fourth one begins with: “I am knocking at your
door, Merciful Lord.” There is a copy of the last two odes
in Paris 587 in which his name is mentioned as Hananya
the Stranger. John has also a lengthy liturgy beginning
thus: “O Lord and God of peace and safety and love
between the heavenly and earthly beings.” This liturgy
is clearly ascribed to him, in the Paris copies 568 for in it
he is referred to as John the Scribe, the Stranger, and
the “Short One.” In thejerusalem copy he is referred to
as “John the Patriarch and the Stranger Scribe.” 569 In
the Rome copy, transcribed in 1484, he is referred to as
“The Patriarch John who is Hananya the Stranger.” 570
This is also how he is referred to in the copies of
Basibrina and Diyarbakr. This liturgy has been men-
tioned by Baumstark. However, our contemporaries
like Rahmani have erroneously attributed it to the
Patriarch Yuhanna (John) Shay Allah. 571 In fact,
Alphonse Mingana attributed his poems to this latter
patriarch.

222. Yuhanna gohn) of Tiflis (d. 1221)

John is the son of the priest Joseph the Syrian from
the city of Tiflis in southern Russia. He was versed in
both the Syriac and Persian languages. He was men-
tioned by the monk David of Hims in his comments on
the book Cause of all Causes ^ which we found at the Cross

Monastery in Tur Abdin in 1911. David said, “John of
Tiflis translated the Gospels into Persian from a revised
Syriac copy in the handwriting of the patriarchjohn bar
Shushan. He also explained the difficult parts of it. He
undertook this task according to the order of the Sultan
Ala al-Din Kaykubadh.” 572

223. Hasnun of Edessa (d. 1227)

Hasnun was a corpulent old man, well-versed in
medicine. He also had some knowledge of philosophy.
He was delightful company because of the many stories
he told about old and contemporary kings and sages.
He went to the land of the Byzantines and entered the
services of Sayf al-Din the prince of Akhur, Ikhtiyar al-
Din Hasan and then the Banu Shah Armen Musa ibn al-
Adil Ayyub in Diyarbakr, and afterwards I lazar Dinari
and the sons of al-Adil ibn Ayyub. At the end of his
service he returned to Edessa. He died at the church of
Barbara in Aleppo in 1227. 575

224. Gabriel of Edessa (d. 1227)

Gabriel was a proficient physician. He was a contem-
porary of Hasnun the Physician. He wrote many books
on medicine and philosophy in Syriac which are lost to
us.

225. Theodore of Antioch, the Philosopher

Bar Hebraeus stated, “Theodore mastered Syriac
and Latin. He studied philosophy under Kamal al-Din
ibn Yunus and medicine under some physicians in
Baghdad. Under him studiedjacob ibn Saqlan al-Maqdisi
the Malkite. Theodore entered the service of some
kings, particularly Frederick II (1215-1250), then em-
peror of Germany.” 574 He is thought to have died about
1235-1240.

226. The Metropolitan Jacob ibnShakkoko (d. 1231)

Jacob became a monk and studied at the Monastery

ofMar Hananya. He became a bishop of Mardin, Nisibin,
Khabur and Harran in 1220 and was named Iyawannis.
In 1220 he drew up a firm liturgy beginning thus:
“Almighty and everlasting God. "Although his real name
aswellas his nickname “Shakkoko”or “Chakko,” clearly
appears in the majority of the many copies of this
liturgy, yet Assemani has erroneously ascribed it to
John, metropolitan of Mardin, who died in 1165.
Contemporary writers still repeat Assemani’s error. 575
Jacob was still living in 1231.

227. The Edessene Chronicler (1234)

A proficient writer and historian. His history indi-
cates that he was a monk at the Monastery of Mar
Barsoum. He was born at Edessa about 1160 and died
shortly after 1234. His anonymity is to be regretted.
What is known about him is that he witnessed the
occupation of Jerusalem by Salah al-Din (Saladin) in
1187 and that he accompanied Gregorius Jacob,

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maphrian of the East, to his diocese, including Takrit
and Sinjar in 1190. He was a partisan of the family of
Michael the Great.

This anonymous Edessene wrote a detailed and fine
history in two volumes, consisting of more than eight
hundred thirty-one pages. In the first volume he related
world events from the creation to the year 1234; and in
the second one he discussed Church events from
Constantine the Great to the year 1207. He also related
at length the chronicles of the Crusaders, and the events
of Edessa especially the events after 1075, in a manner
which had not been followed by other historians. How-
ever, the first volume is slightly imperfect, especially for
the events after 1234. A substantial part of the second
volume is missing. Even what has remained, that is, the
part covering the events from 575 to 1207 is imperfect
and consists of only one hundred thirty-four pages. The
whole book is divided into two hundred sixteen chap-
ters and is full of unique and beneficial information not
existing in any other history. However, the Edessene
Chronicler is to blame for weak authority and for
information contrary to the truth but, these defects are
slight. It is not unlikely that the original of this history
consisted of a thousand pages. A single copy of this
history was found in the possession of Bulus (Paul) the
Edessene in Constantinople, transcribed at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century. In 1904 Msgr. Rahmani
published the first volume, but because of haste, many
mistakes were left in it uncorrected. We undertook the
task of recollating it with great care with the original and
made a photographic copy of the second volume for the
Orientalistjean Chabot. Chabot translated it into Latin
and published it in its entirety in a fine form in 1916,
acknowledging our assistance .

This same anonymous Ed essen e Chr on icier also wrote
other histories, as he openly states at the end of his
biography of Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa
(d. 11 91). He stated, “We have related at length in other
books 377 the hardships which befell him and those who
provoked them and were their cause.”

228. Jacob of Bartulli, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s
Monastery (d. 1241)

Jacob is son of Isa, son of Mark Shakko (more
correcdy Shabbo, ed.). An outstanding philologist and
theologian, he was born at Bartulli near Mosul and
became a monk at St. Matthew Monastery. There he
studied religious sciences by himself and was elevated to
the priesthood. He studied grammar and logic under
John bar Zubi the Nestorian monk, and later logic and
philosophy in Arabic under the philosopher Kamal al-
Din ibn Yunus of Mosul. He became famous for his
knowledge. Bar Madani, maphrian of the East ordained
him a metropolitan for his own monastery and named
him Severus in 1232. He died in 1241 and was buried in
his monastery. Bar Hebraeus praised his intelligence
and learning. 378

Following are his writings:

1 . The Book of Treasures, in four parts, which he wrote
in 1231 in response totherequestofMatthewthemonk.
It is a concise theological book containing a discussion
of the Trinity - the three-in-one God -, the Incarnation,
opposition to heresies, the mysteries of the Church and
its rituals, the substantiation of the true Christian reli-
gion, Divine Providence, fate and destiny, the Angels,
the creation of the world, the soul, Paradise, the resur-
rection and eternal punishment. It also contains pro-
found information on geography and the shape of the
universe. This book has many copies in the libraries of
Zafaran.St. Matthew’s Monastery, the Vatican, London,
Paris, Cambridge, Sharfa and our Library. 379 Of the
latter, chapter thirty-seven of part four is missing. An
abridgement of its scientific, astronomical and natural
chapters has been made by Nau.

2. An exposition of Church offices, prayers and
Church mysteries.

3. The Book of Evident Truth on the Authenticity of
Christianity in which he expounded the Nicene Creed.

4. The Book of Church Music in which he discussed
hymns, Church melodies, their types, composers and
the dates they were used by the Church. These three
latter books are lost but they were mentioned by the
author in chapters thirty-one, thirty-nine, forty and
forty-one of part two of his Book of Treasures.

5. The Dialogue proposed to him by the monk Isa,
which is the best of his writings. It is divided into six
treatises on grammar, rhetoric, poetry, language, logic
and philosophy, written in the form of questions and
answers. In the part pertaining to physics he discussed
briefly the sciences of mathematics, music, geometry
and astronomy. The whole book consists of two volumes
covering eight hundred pages. In the introduction to
the first volume the author stated, “In this volume, I
restricted my discussion to the ideas and doctrines of
philosophers. If I live longer, God willing, I shall refute
what should be refuted of their ideas in another book.”
He followed the first treatise on grammar with a dis-
course on the same in the twelve-syllable meter in reply
against Hunayn ibn Ishaq and Yeshu Yab bar Malkun,
the Nestorian metropolitan of Nisibin. In the treatise
on language he recorded terms obsolete in the Syriac
language but preserved in the Arabic language. He also
added much new information to this treatise, which
indicates his proficiency and mastery of the many as-
pects of the Syriac language. Furthermore, he adorned
his treatise on rhetoric (in which he quoted profusely
from the monk Anton Rhetor of Takrit) with the intro-
ductions from many letters, which are highly rhetorical.
There are complete copies of this work in London, 380
Berlin, 381 Oxford, 382 Guttingen, 383 Boston, 384 Birming-
ham, 385 Zafaran, 386 Jerusalem, 387 our library 388 and
Diyarbakr. 389 Portions of it have been published by Merx
Martin, Julius Ruska and the Chorepiscopus Ishaq
Armala. There is also an old copy of this book at the

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Sayyida Monastery MS 63 completed in 1255 and two
new copies MSS 64 and 65, the latter is imperfect, and
a copy at the Edessene library.

6. The book of rhymed prose to which he gave the
Greek title Helicaus. He mentioned this book in the
tenth problem of the second treatise of his Dialogue.

7. Twenty-two letters arranged according to the al-
phabet, in which he discussed the rhymed terms at
length. He mentioned these letters in the tenth prob-
lem of the second treatise of the Dialogue.

8. Two metrical letters in the hexta-syllabic meter
appended to his Book of Treasurers in praise of the two
physicians Fakhr al-Din [on p. 9 and 152 his name
appears as Fakhr al-Dawla. ed] Mari and Taj al-Dawla
Abu Tahir, sons of Amin al-Dawla Abu al-Karam Said
ibn Tuma (Thomas), the Syrian physician of Baghdad
and secretary to the Abbasid Caliph al-Nasir (d. 1223).
They are embellished with metaphorical terms while
the rhyme endswith the first two letters of the names of
these two men. They are unquestionably poor, and the
forced verse has marred the second letter.

Istephan al-Duwayhi has ascribed to him a liturgy
beginning with: “O Lord and God who art of the
beautiful name,” 590 but we could not find it. Assemani
has erroneously ascribed to him the exhortation for the
priests written by Jacob, metropolitan of Miyafarqin. 591

Jacob’s prose is smooth and clear except for the
Greek terms which have marred it. Bar Hebraeus cor-
rected him in one term only, which is the passive of the
verb to err. 576

229. The Priest Yeshu Thomas of Hisn Kifa (1248)

He is the priest Yeshu, son of the deacon Jacob

Thomas of al Tama the Easterner. He was born at Hisn
Kifa about 1185 and traveled to Melitene and the lands
around it. He studied under Iyawannis, bishop ofRaban
and became well-versed in the Syriac language and
mastered its calligraphy. Ignatius III ordained him a
bishop and sent him to Qalat al-Rum to take charge of
building the Church of the Virgin on February 25,
1235. 595 He resided in Qalat al-Rum and studied the
Armenian language and medicine. His son, the priest
Shimun (Simon) studied under him and became the
chief physician of Hulago (1260-1289). In 1248 he
made an abridged translation into Armenian of the
history of Michael the Great at the request of Con slan tine
I, the Armenian Catholicos. His translation was revised
by his friend the monk Vartan the Armenian. 594 But it is
also reported that he made two translations of this
history, one full length and one abridged. This transla-
tion is published. I think that he died shordy before
1252. He is the grandfather of the Patriarch Philoxenus
Nimrud (d. 1292).

230. Gregorius John, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s
Monastery and Azerbayjan

John was bom in the village of Bartulli and most

likely became a monk at St. Matthew’s Monastery. He
was ordained a metropolitan of this monastery and
Azerbayjan after 1241 and was named Gregorius. He
stands in between Jacob Shabbo who died in that year
(1241) and Ignatius ofBartulli, who was sdll living in 1269.

Gregory was a learned man who wrote a fine liturgy
beginning with: “Immortal and Graceful Lord.” This
liturgy is to be found only in the diocese of Mosul; the
Cambridge copy is a transcription of it. 595 Some later
scribes attributed it erroneously to Bar Hebraeus. The
name of John is mentioned as a metropolitan in a
manuscript in London containing the homilies of Bar
Kifa, which he finished in 1242. 596 There is a statement
in this manuscript that it belongs to his nephews or
brothers, one of whom is called the deacon Abu al-
Faraj ofBartulli. A manuscript in Paris also contains
the names of Abu al-Faraj and his son Taj al-Din of
Bartulli. 597

231. Basilius of Basibrina (1254)

Basilius was born at Basibrina and was ordained a
metropolitan for the Qartamin Monastery about 1249.
He is the second metropolitan of this monastery to bear
this name. He died about 1 254. He wrote two husoyos^
one is recited at the third hour of the Sunday of Mary’s
visit to Elizabeth. It begins with: “Praise be to the Lord
who made miracles by his manifestation.” The second
one is in praise of the Virgin. It begins with: “Praise to
the one nature.” 598

232. The Maphrian Saliba the Edessene (d. 1258)

Saliba is son of Jacob Wajih. He was born at Edessa

and studied at the diocesan home of Dionysius, metro-
politan of Melitene. Together with Bar Hebraeus, he
studied logic and medicine under master Jacob the
Nestorian in Tripoli and became proficient in both
disciplines. He also mastered the Arabic language and
was ordained a metropolitan for Aleppo at the end of
1247. Later, he was elevated to the dignity of the
Maphrianate of the East and was named Ignatius in
December, 1252. However, he had a troubled life. After
two and a half years in his position as maphrian he
resigned and resided first in Aleppo, and then in Tri-
poli. He died a middle aged man in 1258. He was
pleasant company and an eloquent and entertaining
conversationalist. He had a sweet voice and was one of
the most proficient men in Church music. However, he
had little knowledge of the sciences of Holy Scripture. 599
He left no writing.

233. The Patriarch Yuhanna (John) Ibn al-Madani (d.
1263)

He is Aaron, nicknamed “Ibn al-Madani,” a profi-
cient poet and writer in both Syriac and Arabic. He was
also of noble character. He was ordained a metropoli-
tan for Mardin in 1230 and was named Yuhanna (John).
He was then elevated to the Maphrianate at the end of

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the following year. He spent his time between the
country of Nineveh (Mosul) and Baghdad, when he
studied the Arabic language and became able to write
his letters and sermons in it. When the patriarchal
throne became vacant, he was ambitious to fill it and
consequendy he became a patriarch on December 4,
1 252, succeeding Dionysius VII . He remained in his new
position two years. He died in 1263 at the Baqismat
Monastery 400 and was eulogized in a masterful ode by
Bar Hebraeus.

Following are his writings.

1. An anthology in forty-seven pages, containing his
poems, largely rhymed, in the twelve-syllabic meter.
The most famous of his poems is the one on the soul,
en tided “The Bird,” in one hundred twenty-two lines.
The second one in twenty-five is on the high origin of
the soul, its fall and degradation. He began itwith: “She
descended to you from the highest holy,” is emulation
of Ibn Sina’s ode “She has descended to you from on
high.” A one hundred twenty-six line poem on the
excellent path of the perfect and their categories is one
of his most excellent poems. Besides these, he wrote a
fifteen line poem on the death, resurrection and judg-
ment of people according to their deeds and a forty-two
line rhymeless poem on the invasion of Edessa by the
Byzantine emperor in July, 1245. He also composed
some fifty-two short poems, one of which was translated
into Arabic. They demonstrate his fertile imagination,
techniques and good taste. His ode in praise of Aaron
the Ascetic is lost His anthology has a vocalized copy in
Oxford. 401 In 1929, the monk Yuhanna (John) Dolabani
the Syrian, published his anthology in Jerusalem based
on recent copies.

2. Four magnificent homilies in Syriac on Palm
Sunday, the Cross, the Presentation of our Lord in the
Temple and New or Low Sunday. He composed these
homilies when he was a maphrian and translated them
into Arabic with some liberty into classical rhymed
prose. He opened his homily on the feast of the Cross
with: “Beloved, let us pluck out the fruit of immortality
from the blessed wood,” and followed it by supplication
and invocations, particularly an invocation of God in
favor of the Caliph and his heir apparent In his suppli-
cations he lauded the wealthy Syrian dignitaries, Taj al-
Dawla, Fakhr al-Dawla and Shams al-Dawla of the Tuma
family of Baghdad. There is a copy of these homilies in
good handwriting finished at the end of the thirteenth
century or the beginning of the following century. 402
From this copy we published the Arabic homilies, ex-
cept the first one 403 as well as a fourth homily on the
Assumption of the Virgin. 404

3. A liturgy compiled from the liturgies of the Fa-
thers, beginning with, “Immortal and Everlasting, whose
existence is imperative.” 405

4. Seven canons, six of which he issued at the Monas-
tery of Mar Hananya while still a maphrian. The seventh
one he incorporated into one of his early patriarchal

proclamations and it is mentioned in an ancient collec-
tion at our library.

234. Dionysius Saliba, bishop of Kaludhya (Claudia)
(d. 1273)

Dionysius Saliba, nicknamed “Harifo” (“Intelligent”),
studied at the Madiq Monastery, where he also became
a monk shortly before 1281. He was ordained a priest
and then a bishop for the diocese of Claudia about
1230. He accompanied Ignatius III on his visit to Jerusa-
lem in 1235. Upon his return he ran the diocese of
Melitene on Ignatius’s behalf for a short period, then
returned to his own diocese. He died at the end of 1273
while he was abouteighty. He was eloquent and wrote a
treatise on the soul. 406

235. Dioscorus Theodoras, metropolitan of Hisn
Ziyad (1275)

Dioscorus Theodoras is the son of the priestMichael,
son of Basil. He was born at Hisn Ziyad and became a
monk at the Virgin Monastery known as the Monastery
of Bani Bauth before 1224. He studied Syriac and
mastered its calligraphy. He was diligent in procuring
and transcribing church books. Besides the Estrangelo
script he also mastered the art of color illumination. He
was ordained a metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad before 1238.
In 1264 he was made an anti-maphrian but soon he
declared his allegiance to the patriarch and adhered to
his diocese. He was still living in 1275 and perhaps lived
until 1282. We found in his handwriting six manuscripts
including husoyos in Amid, a liturgy in Kharput, and a
pictorial Gospel at Zafaran. Appended to this Gospel
are nine rhymeless lines of poetry in the twelve-syllabic
meter on supplication. He began and ended itwith the
letters of his name. 407 Bar Hebraeus said about him that
he was a famous Doctor of the Church. 408

236. Mar Gregorius Abu al-Faraj of Melitene,
maphrian of the East, known as Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286)

Abu al-Faraj, nicknamed “Jamal al-Din,” son of the
deacon Taj al-Din Aaron the physician, the son of Tuma
(Thomas) of Melitene known as Bar Hebraeus 409 is a
very famous learned man and one of the great philoso-
phers and theologians of the Orient as well as the
world. 410 Certainly, he is the most luminous star that
ever shown in the firmamentof the Syrian nation 411 and
his encyclopedic knowledge makes him all the more
unique and unequalled.

He was born at Melitene in 1 226 to a noble Christian
family. 412 In an article 413 written by us we have refuted
the allegation of Orientalists who claimed that the term
Ibri (Hebraeus) is evidence that he was of Jewish origin
and that his father was a convert to Christianity. The
truth is that he was called Hebraeus because either one
of his forefathers or he himself was born during a
crossing of the River Euphrates. It is sufficient proof to
cite a line of poetry which he composed about this, his

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

nickname. He stated:

If our Lord (Christ) called himself a Samaritan,

Do not be ashamed if people call you Bar Hebraeus
(Son of a Hebrew).

For the origin of this application is the River
Euphrates

And not a disgraceful doctrine or the Hebrew
language.

Let then those who arbitrarily hold this view change
their traditional mistake.

Bar Hebraeus studied Syriac, Church rites, the Holy
Scripture and the commentaries of the Church Fathers
on them, under proficient masters in his own country.
He also studied medicine under his father. At the end
of 1243 his father left with his family for Antioch be-
cause of civil disturbances in his own country. Abu al-
Faraj took this opportunity to study whatever he could
of sciences under other teachers he found. In 1244 he
became disenchanted with worldly things and became
a monk renowned for his piety. He pursued his study of
medicine, rhetoric and logic under master Jacob the
Nestorian in Tripoli. When he achieved fame, Patriarch
Ignatius III liked him and ordained him a priest and
then a bishop forjubas in 1 246 and called him Gregory.
Later he was transferred to the diocese of Laqbin and
then Aleppo where he completed his philosophical and
theological studies and mastered the Arabic language.
Onjanuary 19, 1264 he was elevated to the Maphrianate
of the East He spent the next twenty-two years and few
months traveling between Nineveh, St. Matthew’s mon-
astery, Baghdad, Mosul, Maragha and Tabriz, minister-
ing to the believers and treating favorable circumstance
for the Church in both religious and secular domains.
He had great favor with the kings of the Mongols
because of his knowledge, competence and his excel-
lent handling of things and people. He chose pious and
qualified monks and ordained twelve of them bishops.
He built two churches, two monasteries and two dioc-
esan homes for the bishops and an inn . Nevertheless, he
never stopped learning and entering into discussions
with the learned men of his time. Wherever he went, he
became the focus of attention for the educated. At the
library of Maragha he studied philosophical commen-
taries in Arabic. He also read all of the philosophical
and medical writings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and used
them as his authority after the writings of Aristotle. They
had a great influence on his own writings. Then he
studied the Persian language thoroughly and found
time to look into the different books of asceticism.
Through God’s Providence he was successful in every-
thing he did until his death at Maragha on July 30, 1 286
- being sixty years of age. All the Christian sects were
stunned by his death and mourned his passing. His holy
body was conveyed to the Monastery of St. Matthew,
where his grave is still the object of reverence. He was

described as “The Ocean of Wisdom,” “The Light of
East and West," "The Prince of Learning Men,” “The
Greatest Sage,” “The Holy Father” and “The Most
Learned Man Possessing Divine Knowledge.”

Following are his writings:

1 . AusarRoze ( Storehouse of Secrets) which is a large and
significant book containing a philological, literal and
spiritual commentary on the Books of the Old and New
Testaments. He wrote it after thorough study of the
Scriptures based on the Pshitto and the Septuagint
translation, the translations used by Origen, the
Heraclean, the Coptic, Armenian and Nestorian trans-
lations, together with the Qarqafta vocalization of the
Scriptures. He also mentioned his preference of the
Septuagint to the Pshitto version. His commentary
covers all the books of the Old Testament including the
apocryphal books of wisdom and the Maccabees and
the New Testament except Revelation. In his interpre-
tation he cited as authorities Hippolytus, Africanus,
Origen, Julius, Eusebius, Athanasius, St. Ephraim, Basil,
Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, Epiphanius,
Chrysostom, Cyril, Hesychius, the Areopagite, Jacob of
Saruj, Philoxenus ofMabug, Severus of Antioch, Daniel
of Salh, Jacob of Edessa and George Bishop of the
Arabs. He mentioned only once Didymus, Theodore of
Mapsuestia, David bar Paul (in his commentary on the
Gospel according to St. Matthew) and Patriarch Michael.
In these commentaries he produced ideas of his own,
criticizing some ideas of the Fathers. He finished this
book on December 15, 1271. In a second copy, which
was transcribed from the original written by the author
in 1354, and which I believe is today in London, it is
stated that he finished this book in 1277. However, the
first date is more correct. Martin Sprengling, the Ameri-
can scholar said, “Bar Hebraeus is the greatest writer in
all the history of Syriac literature and surely the most
learned man of his age. In his Storehouse of Secrets he
devoted all his knowledge to the Holy Scripture. The
theologian, the historian, the anthropologist and the
philosopher will find a wealth for his research in this
comprehensive work written by this notable man of the
thirteenth century.” 414

There are more than twenty copies of this magnifi-
cent book, the oldest of which is one transcribed in 1275
in the lifetime of the author. 415 Another copy is in Berlin
transcribed in 1298, 416 and one other at our library is
thought to have been transcribed at the beginning of
the fourteenth century. The Orientalists, Sprengling
and Graham gathered photographic copies of these
manuscripts and published the first volume in three
hundred ninety-three pages of the book ending with
Second Samuel in 1931.

2. Mnorath Qudshe ( The Lamp of the Sanctuaries J, is a
very profound and large book in five hundred large-size
pages. In it he dealt in great detail with the positive and
negative theological sciences, supported by testimonies
from Holy Scripture, Christian authorities and thenatu-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

ral sciences (by citing the writings of Aristotle and
Galen). He defended the truth of Christianity, refuted
the falsehood of misleading men, destroyed the argu-
ments of Sophists and challenged the ideas of Aristotle
when they contradicted the Orthodox faith. He divided
this book into twelve parts or heads as follows: knowl-
edge, the existence of God, the creation of the world,
the Trinity and the Oneness of God, the mystery of the
Incarnation, Angels, Devils, the human soul, priest-
hood, fate and destiny. Resurrection and Paradise. He
made it mandatory for theology students. In 1909 we
found an old copy of this book at the bishop’s residence
in Jazirat ibn Umar in the handwriting of the deacon
Yuhanna (John) Saru of Bartulli, the pupil of the au-
thor, completed in 1275. This copy was lost in the
calamities of World War I. There are ten old copies of
this book. 417 In 1930 Jean Bacchus translated the first
two heads into French and published them. In 1661 the
deacon Sergius, son of Bishop Yuhanna Ghurayr of
Damascus translated it into Arabic, a translation which
is a mixture of good and bad quality. Afterwards many
copies of it were spread throughout the countries. 418

3. Klhobo d-Zalge ( The Book of Rays) , is a compendium
of the Lamp of the Sanctuaries in ten parts. They are as
follows: the creation in six days, theological science, the
Incarnation of the Word-God, the Angels and evil spir-
its, the soul, priesthood or offices of ordination, Bap-
tism, the Chrism, the Eucharistic service, free will and
fate and destiny, the end of the two worlds (the small
and the big), together with the beginning of the new
world and Paradise. His sources were the Doctors
Athanasius, Ephraim, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen (The
theologian), Gregory of Nyssa, Euagrius, Chrysostom,
Cyril, the Ariopagite, Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of
Mabug, Severus of Antioch, Jacob of Edessa, and Moses
bar Kifa. Occasionally, he quoted the two books of the
Testament of our Lord, Clemis of Rome, Mithodius,
Gregory Thaumaturgus, Julius, Titus of Bosra,
Epiphanus, Theophilus, Proclus, Sergius of Ras Ayn,
Severus Sabukht and Bar Sobto. Of the non-Orthodox
he quoted Theodore of Mopseustia, Theodoret and
John of Baysan. If, in these two books, he had avoided
detailed treatment of some subject matter of physicians
copied from Aristotle, he would have been much better.
This book consists of three hundred thirty-eight small-
size pages. There are nine old copies and a new one at
our library. 419 It has been translated into very poor
Arabic by a belated translator.

4. Hewath Hekhemtho ( The Cream of Wisdom ) on phi-
losophy (comprising the whole Aristotelian discipline) .
It is one of his best writings. It consists of two huge
volumes covering nine hundred fifty-one pages. The
first volume contains the Logic in nine books as follows:
the Isagoge, Categories, On Interpretation, Prior Analytics,
Posterior Analytics, Topics, Sophistical Refutations, Rhetoric
and Poetics. The volume consists of three hundred sixty-
five pages. At the end of it he stated: “This is all that we

could find of the teaching of our great master, the
philosopher Aristotle, On Poetry. It seems to me that
some part of it is still missing but extant Either that part
was not translated from the Greek or from Syriac or
from the Arabic or has been translated but did not reach
us. If God wills, and I live long enough I will write a
comprehensive book on this art with full treatment of
the different techniques of rhetoric such as harmoniz-
ing between two opposites, Paranomasia, metaphor,
analogy and others.” The second volume on Physics
consists of two sections. The first section is in eight
books: 1) The Physics, in five parts, dealing with the
natural body in general such as element, form, the
nature of motion, the condition of change, the finite
and the infinite, the connection of motions and the
infinity with a first mover at rest and infinite which has
no parts nor magnitude. 2) On The Heavens f\w five parts,
viz., the heavenly bodies and the sub-luminary bodies,
the four elements, their nature, movements and fixa-
tions and a definition of wisdom. 3) On Generation and
Corruption, in four parts, in which he discussed the
condition of the universe, corruption, the courses of
coming-in to-beingand passing away, and absolute alter-
ations and the number of the eternal bodies subject to
alteration. 4) The Book of Minerals in which he discusses
the condition of solid objects, minerals, mountains,
springs, the movement of the earth and the position of
the universe. 5) The Book of Meteorology, in four parts, in
which he discussed the conditions and motions which
influences the four elements before they come to-
gether, also the influence of the heavens, meteors,
clouds, thunder, wind, earthquakes, oceans and moun-
tains on these elements. 6) The Book of Plants, in four
parts, on living plants. 7) The Book of Animals, in six parts,
in which he discusses the nature of animals and the
condition of the animal world. 8) The Book of Soul, in
fours parts, discussing the knowledge about the soul,
the faculties of the soul, the movement of the soul,
especially in man. He also discusses other related sub-
jects, such as medicine, the discipline of stars, astrology,
talismans and alchemy.

The second section of the second volume is in five
books, viz.. On Philosophy, in eight parts, Theology or
Melaphysicsin six parts, which constitute the theoretical
subjects of this part. They are followed by the practical
subjects, viz., the Nicomachean Ethics, Economics, in three
parts and Politics, in three parts. In Chapter Three of
part two he discussed the characteristics of nations. This
volume consists of two hundred thirty-three chapters in
five hundred eighty-six pages.

There are two old copies of the first volume, one in
Florence, 420 slightly imperfect, and the other in Ox-
ford, 421 and four new copies: one in Kandanat (Malabar),
the second one in Aleppo, the third one in the Sayyida
Monastery 422 and the fourth in Birmingham. 425 There
are also two old copies of the second volume: one in our
library completed in the lifetime of the author. It is the

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

first copy to be transcribed from the author’s copy
which he finished at the end of 1285 or the beginning
of 1286. The second copy is at the Chaldean library in
Amid. 484 There are also two new copies: one in Birming-
ham 485 and the other one at our library.

5. The Book of Tegrath Tegrolho ( Mercatura
Mercaturarisum ) a medium-size book on dialectics and
philosophy in three books. 426 It is an abridgement of his
book The Cream of Wisdom. He compiled it before 1276.
There are six copies of it 427 the oldest transcribed on
May 20, 1276. There is a statement in a copy transcribed
by the Metropolitan Ephraim Qawimi that this book was
translated into Arabic but we do not have a book by this
name in Arabic. 428

6. Kthobo da-Swodh Sophia ( Book of the Speech of Wis-
dom), a small book, in four parts, on dialectics and
philosophy. He wrote it after 1275. Herman Janssens
published it based on twenty-four copies: the oldest are
two, one in Chicago, transcribed in 1299, and the other
is in London, transcribed about 1330 489 He translated
it into French and published it in 1937. In 1940 we
published an excellent Arabic translation of itwhich we
think was made shortly after the author’s death, accord-
ing to a copy transcribed in 1 608, 430 after we revised and
collated it with the original and corrected some of the
errors of the French translator.

7. Kthobo d-Bobotho ( Book of the Pupils of the Eyes) . It is
a small book on the art of logic and philosophy, in seven
parts comprising no more than forty pages. 431

8. Two treatises On the Human Soul, one short and the
other long, which he wrote in excellent Arabic. The first
one consists of sixty-two chapters in twenty-six pages, 432
the other, twenty-six chapters in seventy-four pages. 433
He wrote the latter in response to the request ofDionysi us
Anjur, metropolitan ofMelitene before 1 252. It was first
published in 1928. We found in West New York a
magnificent accentuated copy of it completed at the
end of the thirteenth century and the beginning of the
following century. We republished it in Hims in 1938,
commented on it and corrected the mistakes of the first
publisher, who relied on recent copies.

9. Kitab al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat ( The Book of Indica-
tions and Prognostications) by Ibn Sina, on the art of logic
and philosophy. He translated this book into excellent
Syriac in response to the request of the priest Shimun
(Simon) Thomas the Easterner, chief physician of
Hulago before 1278. It indicates his mastery of the
Syriac language as well as of translation. He mentioned
it in his Chronography in Syriac. 434 This noteworthy trans-
lation has not been alluded to by contemporary writers
on Arab philosophy. There is an old copy of this trans-
lation at the Florence library transcribed by Yuhanna
Bacchus of Bartulli in 1278 435 There are also five more
copies. 436 This manuscript consists of two hundred eigh-
teen large-size pages written in fine script.

10. Kitab Zubdat al-Asrar {The Cream of Secrets) on
philosophy, by Athir al-Din al-Abhari (d. 1266), which

he translated from Arabic into Syriac. It has been lost

Know that Bar Hebraeus studied philosophy by him-
self. He comprehended Aristotle’s philosophy thor-
oughly and followed his method in the first volume of
his Cream of Wisdom according to the sequence of his
writings. He concentrated on the text rather than on
the additions which were made by writers during the
fifteen centuries after Aristotle. Unlike all of our learned
men who treated physics, he studied the texts of
Aristotle’s writings along with the new systematic collec-
tions of writings whether in their original or in transla-
tion. Some Orientalists are of the opinion that he
studied Aristotle’s book On theSoul'm its original Greek
because he accentuated several Greek terms a matter
that has never been done by our writers. 437 It is not
unlikely that he knew Greek, although evidence for this
is lacking. However, it is not improbable that such a
brilliant man could have learned Greek during his long
stay in Syria. In Arabic he studied, other than the works
of Ibn Sina, those by the philosophers Fakhr al-Din al-
Razi, (d. 1210), and his contemporaries, al-Abhari,
Najm al-Din al-Qazwini, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (d. 1276),
who discussed these subjects with him. The ideas of Ibn
Sina had tremendous influence on him, as we have
already mentioned. Praising Ibn Sina he stated: “When
Ibn Sina took Aristotle’s talent, he not only increased it
five times but more than fifty times.” 438 In the Organon
and Physics as well as in the Metaphysicshe followed in the
footsteps of Aristode. He did not deviate his course
exceptwhen he followed Ibn Sina’s doctrine. In fact, he
preferred Ibn Sina’s ideas on the soul and its relations
to the body. In the second volume he treated subjectsin
more conformity with the principles of theology as they
were known in the thirteenth century. We have already
mentioned that death did not give him a chance to write
a philosophical book which would contain his creative
ideas.

1 1 . Kthobo d-Hudoye ( Nomocanon or Book of Directions ) ,
is one of his books famous for its excellence. It consists
of five hundred forty-one pages in forty parts: 1) the
Church and its administration, 2) Baptism, 3) the Holy
Chrism, 4) the Eucharist, 5) fasting and feasts, 6) funer-
als, 7) office of priesthood, 8) property and marriage, 9)
wills, 10) inheritance, 11) selling and buying, 12) credit,
13) mortgage, 14) damages, 15) reconciliation, 16)
transmission of money, 17) bail, 18) partnership, 19)
powerof attorney, 20) admission, 21) deposit materials,
22) loaning of objects, 23) gifts, 24) religious bequests,
25) pre-emption, 26) loans, 27) sharecropping, 28)
desolate lands, 29) leans, 30) the finding of lost things,
31) the finding of lost children, 32) the liberation of
slaves, 33) larceny, 34) felonies, 35) the slaughtering of
game, 36) oaths, 37) vows, 38) litigations and legal
powers, 39) testimony and witnesses, 40) the case with-
out exception. This book consists of one hundred forty-
seven chapters. His sources were the canons ascribed to
the Apostles and which are reproduced in the eight

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

books of Clemis, the Doctrine of Addai, the Councils of
Ancyra, New-Caesarea, Nicea, Antioch, Gangara,
Loadiciea, Constantinople, Seleucia and Chalcedon as
well as the works of Clemis, Dionysius of Athens, Cyprian ,
Dionysius of Alexandria, Eustathius, Athanasius, Basil,
Theologos, Euagrius of Constantinople, Rabula, Cyril
of Alexandria, Timothy, Philoxenus of Mabug.John of
Talla, Severus of Antioch, a letter of certain bishops to
the abbots of two monasteries in the village Linsus in
Cilicia, Theodosius of Alexandria, Cyriacus of Amid,
Jacob of Edessa, from whom he took forty-two canons,
our patriarchs of Antioch George I, Cyriacus, Dionysius
I, John IV, Ignatius II, Michael I and the Decrees of
Byzantine emperors and finally unknown sources to-
gether with his own ideas. He called it the book of
HudcryP 9 which became the constitution of the Church.
This book indicates the wide authority the bishops had
in trying the civil cases among their parishioners. It has
been praised by European authorities like Cardinal
Mai. 440 There are eight copies of this book: the oldest is
at the Jerusalem library and was finished at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century. 441 In 1895 Bedjan pub-
lished it according to the Paris manuscript transcribed
in 1488. A long time ago it was translated into Latin but
the translation is marred with mistakes. At the end of
the sixteenth century it was translated into poor Arabic.

12. The Ethikon ( Ethics ) containing religious obliga-
tions which he began with the obligations of prayer and
adorned with eight supplicatory prayers, the different
kinds of behavior supported by testimonies from Holy
Scripture and the wisdom of Egyptian ascetics and their
chronicles. It is a satisfying source for pious men. He
finished this book at Maragha on July 15, 1279. It
consists of four treatises subdivided into parts and
chapters. The first treatise is on the training of the body,
the second on the methods of maintaining the body,
the third on the purification of the soul from improper
affections and the fourth which is by far the longest, in
sixteen chapters, on the adorning of the soul with
virtues. The book consists of four hundred twenty pages.
There are four old copies of this book, the oldest of
which is at the Chaldean library in Mosul. It was com-
pleted in 1292. 442 This book was published by Bedjan in
1898 and was translated into poor Arabic by the monk
David of Hims. A copy of this translation is at Oxford 443

13. Kthobo drYawno ( The Book of the Dove). A compen-
dium in the training of ascetics. He wrote it at the
suggestion of some lovers of asceticism after he had
written the Ethikon. It consists of four parts, the first one
on the bodily service in the monastery, the second one
on the psychic service which is accomplished in the cell,
the third on the spiritual quest of the perfect and the
fourth on the author’s progress in knowledge. Some
terms communicated to him in revelation (which are
about eighty in number) . The whole book consists of
eighty pages. The author states that he called it The Dove
as a symbol of the Holy Spirit. This book was translated

into Arabic about 1299 under the title Kitab al-Warqa fi
Ilm al-Irtiqa. I saw its well-written introduction in the
handwriting of Abu al-Hasan ibn Mahruma of Mardin.
There is an old copy of it at the University of Chicago,
written in 1290, and another copy at Oxford. To it was
appended a chapter on the Youthfulness of the Mind,
which is the beginning of a story the author was writing
on his way to Maragha, but death precluded its comple-
tion. 444 The book was published by Bedjan and then by
the monk Yuhanna Dolabani in 191 6. 445

14. The Ecclesiastical History in two volumes. The first
one contains the history of the patriarchs of Antioch
from Peter, the head of the Apostles, till the year 1285.
The second contains the history of the Catholici and
Maphrians of the East, beginning with St. Thomas the
Apostle and ending with his lengthy autobiography to
the year of his death. He also recorded in it the chronicles
of the Nestorian Catholici according to their historian
Mari ibn Sulayman. 446 At the beginning of this history he
included biographies dating back to the first three
centuries, which cannot be substantiated. This book has
old copies in the Vatican, 447 Oxford 448 andjerusalem. 449
It consists of six hundred thirty-three pages. It was
translated into Latin and published by Abbeloos and
Lamy in 1877-1879 with an introduction whose warp
and weft are made of mistakes and falsifications.

15. Makhlhabanuth Zabne (Chronography), beginning
from the creation till the year 1285. In it he incorpo-
rated the history of the world, states and learned men,
with great precision and accuracy. His sources were the
histories of Jacob of Edessa, Michael the Great and
Syriac, Arabic and Persian histories which he found at
the library in Maragha. Copies of this history are found
in the aforementioned libraries. It was published by
Bedjan in 1890 and was also translated into English and
published by Budge in 1932.

16. Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, is a compendium of
hisworld history which he translated into Arabic shortly
before his death in response to the request of certain
Muslim learned men in Maragha. He finished it- except
for three pages -in one month. He incorporated into it
useful information concerning Arab learned men drawn
from Arabic histories, some of which he quoted verba-
tim, excluding events of concern to Christian learned
men. He arranged his work according to the histories of
ten Kingdoms, i.e., the ancient patriarchs, the judges
and kings of Israel, the Chaldean kings, the Persians,
the Greeks, the pagans, the Christianized Romans and
Greeks, the Muslim Arabs and the Mongols. The book
consists of five hundred twenty-two pages and has six
copies: in Florence, 450 Paris, 451 London and Oxford. It
was first published by Pococke, who also translated it
into Latin in 1663. It was also translated into German by
Bauer in 1783 and was published by the monk Anton
Salhani in 1890.

1 7. Kthobo d-Semhe ( The Book of Lights ) , undeniably the
best written Syriac grammar. He wrote it at the request

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

of certain students of grammar and arranged it accord-
ing to the grammatical principles of both the Eastern
and Western Syrians, incorporated into it new prin-
ciples as well as ones adopted from the Arabs. lie
divided it into four parts: on the noun, on the verb, on
the article and on the collective. It became a constitu-
tion for the grammarians and students. It consists of
three hundred fifty-two pages and has many copies, the
oldest one in Florence. 452 Other copies are in Zafaran 455
London, 454 New Jersey, 455 Jerusalem, 456 Oxford, 457 Bos-
ton, 458 and our library. 459 It was published by Martin and
then by Axel Moberg in Paris in 1922.

18. Kihoboda-Grammaliki or Introduction to Grammar, is
written in verse in the heptasyllabic meter. He com-
posed it in Baghdad in two weeks, with comments and
marginal notes. It has many copies, the oldest is at the
University of Chicago. 460 One is at Florence in the
handwriting of the monk Daniel 461 and one is at our
library. 462 These copies do not contain the Arabic com-
ments which were made by later grammarians. Other
copiesare in Birmingham, 465 Zafaran which isan invalu-
able copy, 464 Paris, 465 and Jerusalem. 466 This book has
been published by Martin.

19. Kthobo d-Balsisutho ( The Book of the Spark), which is
a third book on grammar left unfinished by the author.
It is said that it was a large book. However, in his list of
books it is called a compendium. This book is lost, but
the author mentioned it at the end of his former book.

20. Kthobo d-Suloqo Haumonoyo ( Ascent of the Mind) , on
astronomy and cosmography. He wrote it in 1279 in
response to the request of the priest Shimun Thomas
the Easterner. In it he discussed astronomy scientifically
and illustrated it with pictures and geometrical dia-
grams. This book is in two parts: the first one consists of
eight sections, and the second, of seven sections. It
covers two hundred fifty-seven pages. It was translated
into French by Francois Nau according to four copies in
Paris, Oxford and Cambridge in 1895. The oldest of
these copies was transcribed in the fourteenth century.

21. A commentary on Euclid’s book on geometry
which he completed in 1272 and mentioned in his
Ecclesiastical History , 467

22. A commentary on the Megisle of Ptolemy, 468 on
astronomy and the movement of the celestial bodies,
which he completed in Maragha in 1273. He com-
mented on it after he informed Muhyi al-Din ibn
Muhammad ibn Abi al-Shukr al-Maghribi the An dalusian
(Spanish) of a summary of its themes and contents and
added into it an explanation of the neglected introduc-
tion of the book. He also unraveled its obscure passages.
He mentioned the name of the author at the beginning
of the book with great praise. 469

23. A book containing a set of astronomical tables, an
astronomical almanac for fixing the movable feasts.
This book is lost.

24. A translation from Arabic into Syriac of
Dioscorides’s De Medicamenlis Simplicibus, simple medi-

cines, their potency and perfection. It is lost to us also.

25. Another large but lost book containing all of the
medical theories known at the time.

26. An unfinished Syriac translation of four tracts of
the Canon (al-Qanun fi al-Tibb) by Ibn Sina which is also
lost.

27. A selection in Arabic of Al-Adwiya al-Mufrada
( Book of Simples) by Abu Jafar Ahmad ibn Muhammad
ibn Khulayd al-Ghafiqi the Andalusian (d. 560 A.H./
1164 A.D.). It is stated in it that: “This book has been
selected by the unique man of his age, the most learned
and pious Holy Father, the revealer of truths, the
unraveler of intricate matters, Gregorius, Maphrian of
the East. May God complete his happiness and confirm
his eminence.”

Bar Hebraeus selected this book from three volumes
to make the knowledge about drugs more accessible. At
the end of the book he stated, “Gregorius the Maphrian,
a humble servant in need of the mercy of God said,
‘Therefore, in this abridgement I decided to restrict
myself to the selection and description of medicines,
particularly the most famous and potent, with the exclu-
sion of oral medicines and ointments. Despite the small
size and comprehensiveness, it turned out to be benefi-
cial and far-reaching in this art.’” A copy of this book in
one hundred forty-six pages was found in Dar al-Kutub
(The National Library) in Cairo No. 1032, written in an
ordinary script in the time of the author at the end of
Rabi al-Awwal, 684 A.H./ 1285 A.D. Dr. Max MeyerhofF
and George Subhi translated forty-three pages of it into
English and published them in 1932, covering only the
letter A. We have spotted eleven mistakes in their
introduction. How better it would be if they had vocal-
ized the text. This book has a second copy. 470

28. A book On the Benefits of the Members of the Body in
Arabic. In it he compiled in details all of the ideas of
physicians regarding pharmaceutics. This useful book
is lost.

29. A commentary in Arabic on the Aphorisms of
Hippocrates. A small book, it has a single copy in our
library transcribed by the physician Hidayat Allah
Chalabi, the Syrian, in 1640, which we found in Dam-
ascus in 1938.

30. A commentary in Arabic on the Medical Questions
by Hunayn ibn Ishaq the Physician, reaching up to the
part on antidotes which is about two-thirds of the book.
It was left unfinished because of his death. It is con-
tained in our previously mentioned copy .

31. A brief commentary on the Book of Hierotheos,
whose author is anonymous. 1 1 is a small book consisting
of one hundred twenty-two chapters in one hundred
ninety pages. He wrote a commentary on it-in response
to the request of certain monks. Bar Hebraeus has
nothing to do with some of the pantheistic ideas it
contained. This book has copies in London, 471 one of
which he used in his commentary. Other copies are in
our library, Paris, Berlin 472 and Zafaran.

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

32. An anthology containing thirty odes together
with more than a hundred short pieces ranging be-
tween two and ten lines of poetry. Composed in the
twelve-syllabic meter, most of these poems are on de-
scription, wisdom, communication with friends, praise,
satire and eulogies. One of these poems is on the long
absence of a friend, apologizing for the delay in deliver-
ing his gift to him. Alluded to in it are the injustices
which befall the Christians. Others are on the love of
knowledge, the purification of the soul, the vanity of
loving this world, a soliloquy on the soul and a ninety-six
line ode on the marvellous creation of the heavens, the
different ideas of people concerning created beings
and the nature of the rational soul. In this ode he
apologized for his renunciation of worldly things and
pleasure and his contentedness in possessing necessary
things such as food, clothes and lodging, for the sake of
happiness in the world to come. Other odes are on in
sixty lines on divine love, which he likened unto wine,
wisdom’s scolding of the ignorant and three hundred
five line philosophical ode on perfection which he
composed in Baghdad in 1277. In response to the desire
of a certain prince named Shams al-Din, he composed
an ode based on this ode, on perfection. So also did
Yeshu Yab and other Chaldean writers, but what they
wrote was a distortion of this ode. 47s As to his odes on the
description of Spring, praise, eulogy and wisdom, espe-
cially his ode on Divine Wisdom in one hundred sixty
lines we have already mentioned these in chapters 8 and
9. Although his anthology contains many masterpieces,
it also contains the poor and weak poems which he
composed while still young and perhaps had no time to
revise later.

This anthology has two copies, one at Oxford 474 and
the other at Birmingham. 475 It was first published by the
Maronite monk Augustine Shababi in 1877. The priest
Gabriel Qirdahi published the ode on Divine Wisdom.
The monk-priest Yuhanna Dolabani did well by publish-
ing it in a neat edition in 1929 at Jerusalem. It does not
include two odes in the heptasyllabic meter: one on the

Trinity 478 and the other, a lengthy historical and dog-
matic ode composed about 1282, at the behest of the
Catholicos Denha I. This ode was published by
Chabot. 477

33. A liturgy beginning with “Merciful thou art O
Lord and thy mercy is for all the peoples.” This liturgy
which bears his name is obviously his. 478 Another liturgy
which begins thus: “O, Immortal and Gracious” is in fact
not his, but belongs to Gregory of Bartulli as has been
already men tion ed . I n 1 282 Bar Ilebraeus also abridged
the liturgy of St. James, the brother of the Lord which is
known as the short liturgy. Onjanuary 29, 1282 he has
also written a commentary on the service of the Blessing
of the Water on the Epiphany. 479

34. The Book of Humorous Stories in twenty chapters
covering forty pages, contains the chronicles of some
sages, kings, teachers, ascetics, physicians, rich men,
misers, artisans as well as tales told through animals.
There is an imperfect copy of this book at
Constantinople, transcribed in 1605. 480 ThemonkLouis
Cheikho published on old vocalized Arabic copy of this
book, transcribed in the same year.

35. An insignificant treatise on the interpretation of
dreams which he wrote in his youth.

36. An eloquent homily in Arabic on Palm Sunday.
We found a copy of it in Azekh and published it 481
According to information given in the book it seems
that he wrote many treatises, propitiatory prayers and
letters, 482 all of which have been lost except his letter to
the patriarch Nimrud. 485

Bar Hebraeus was also proficient in the Armenian
and Persian languages 484 and a master of the Syriac
language, comprehending all of its aspects. Further-
more, he was proficient in the Arabic language. His
Syriac style is very powerful, lucid and attractive. When-
ever his reader dived in his books he found unique and
precious pearls. He would end his reading by bowing his
head in great reverence to the prince of writers, the king
of learned men and without exception, the most fa-
mous Syrian scholar.

158

CHAPTER THREE
Biographies of Learned Men
and Writers of the Third Period
1290-1931

Foreword

Orientalists described the period following the times
of Bar Hebraeus as the period of decline of learning.
They ruled that sciences and literature deteriorated to
the extent that they no longer attracted attention. Of
these Orientalists only Anton Baumstark mentioned a
group of later writers which is not of much worth.
Indeed, they have exaggerated theirjudgment, because
most of the writings of men after Bar Hebraeus did not
reach them. Furthermore, it should be realized that the
whole Middle East began to decline after the fall of
Baghdad in 1258. And the misfortune of the Middle
East reached its culmination in the last decade of the
thirteenth century, as a result of the intensive wars and
successive invasions which destroyed it. Consequently,
theswordwroughthavoc and killed innumerable people
where once there were prosperous countries. The dark-
ness of calamities was further lengthened by the rise of
states and petty states, the majority of whose rulers were
ruthless and tyrannical, and destroyed civilization. As a
result many people fell into captivity or were forced to
leave their country. Learning declined even in the
Ottoman period, except for restricted religious Islamic
sciences. Even the Arabic language itself became weak
and Arabic writing, except for a few authors who be-
came abjectly poor. Not until the middle of the nine-
teenth century did factors collaborate to create an
awakening of learning.

In spite of these vicissitudes, there appeared among
the Syrians learned men and writers who, to the limits
of their ability, held fast for a time to their religious
science and literature. But they were soon to lose their
institutions of higher learning. And no sooner had the
fourteenth century dawned upon them that they were
plagued by cruel times. They found most of their mon-
asteries ruined, their dioceses destroyed, their schools
in shambles and their books scattered. As to their
communicants, they were, for the next three centuries,
the victims of the sword, plunder, massacre and evic-
tion, with the result that their number drastically dimin-
ished. Under these circumstances, no learned men

shone among them, nor was it possible for learned men
who would be the match of their learned men in the past
flourish. They and their communicants were not the
only ones to suffer adversities; other denominations
and sects also did. Nevertheless, you will still find viable
Syriac literature among a small group of these writers.
The following pages will uncover the names of fifty-six
writers of elegant style, although they could not reach
the literary level of their predecessors; therefore, they
are counted among the second and the third classes of
writers. You will also find sixteen of these writers who
wrote on language, poetry, rhetoric, interpretation,
divine subjects, history and worship. Of these we may
mention Abu Nasr and Gabriel ofBartulli, al-Safi, brother
of Bar Hebraeus, Yeshu bar Kilo, Yusuf (Joseph) bar
Gharib, Bahnam Hidli, Bar Madani, Isaiah, Yeshu and
Addai of Basibrina, David of Hims, Nuh the Lebanese,
Masud of Zaz, Abd al-Ghani al-Mansuri, Shimun of
Manimim and Jacob of Qutrubul. We have omitted
others either because of their insignificant output or
because we did not like their writing.

Because the history of literature should cover all
periods of its existence, it was necessary to close our
book with these writers and evaluate their writings in
order that the discerning reader might observe the
progress of the Syriac language and its literature in all
its periods. May he spare us his indulgence for writing
about an au thor of little ou tpu t or a poe t who composed
few lines only and who did not achieve his desired fame.
For our intention is not to ignore the right of any writer
if he proved to be excellent in most of his writings,
mediocre in some and poor in others. Let no critic form
the impression that by mentioning these writers we are
intending to elevate them to the class of proficient
writers. What we have done is to afford everyone of them
the description he deserves. The reader should not
forget that among the writers from the ninth to the
thirteenth centuries are those who are not more profi-
cient than some of the later ones. On the other hand,
linguistic critics find the composition of these writers no
less qualitative than that of some of the medieval learned
men. Nevertheless, the Syriac language, whose history,
literature and sciences have spanned one thousand and
eight hundred years, still occupies a firm place in the
hearts of our clergymen, who know how to read and
write it. We hope that our clergymen will be faithful
protectors of its precious legacy and endeavor to propa-
gate it.

237. Abu Nasr of Bartulli (1290)

Abu Nasr is one of the numbered writers and poets.
He was bom at Bartulli to an old and noble family
known as Habbo Kanni. He was called Nicolaus and in
Syriac Zakhi. He became a monk at St. Matthew’s
monastery where he also studied the sciences of lan-
guage, religion and rhetoric. He chose the life of the
anchorites and was ordained a priest. He may have

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

become the abbot of St. Matthew’s monastery in 1260 1
and studied under Bar Hebraeus. He was still living in
1290 2 and probably died shortly after that date. One of
his contemporaries was the deacon Bahnam Habbo
Kanni, the physician and man of letters. In a lucid and
smooth style he wrote ninety-four husoyos whose index
we gathered from ancient manuscripts. They indicate
his proficiency in literature and the different forms of
rhetorics. His name appears on these husoyos in many
copies atTur Abdin, Diyarbakr, Jerusalem and Bartulli.
Of these husoyos are thirty-five alone for Lent. Seven of
them are arranged according to the alphabet. He par-
ticularly excelled in the husoyos on the festival of St.
Jacob which begins thus: “Praise be to the eternal one,”
the morning service of the festival of Sl Stephen written
in rhymed-prose and beginning thus: “Praise be to the
eternal one who is without beginning and without end, ”
the first prayer of the night of Pentecost which begins
thus: “Praise to the Prince of Peace.” Other excellent
husoyos are those on the festivals of our Lady over the
crops and over the ears of corn, the Friday of Gold (the
first Friday after Pentecost), the commemoration of the
Aposdes, Severus of Antioch, the martyrs, St. Barbara,
St. Bahnam, St. Stephen, the Forty Martyrs, the Eastern
Confessors, SL George, St. Cyriacus, Beth Sahdo the
Stylite and the Maccabees.

He also composed a heptasyllabic rhymeless ode in
thirty-six pages on the life of Matta (Matthew) the
Ascetic in which he praised him and mentioned what
happened in his monastery. It is a beautiful and graceful
ode. We found an extant copy of it in Diyarbakr in the
handwriting of the Maphrian Barsoum II bar Madani 3
and another imperfect copy in Bartulli. 3

238. Abu al-Hasan ibn Mahruma (d. 1299)

He is Abu al-Hasan ibn Ibrahim ibn Yaqub (Jacob) al-
Khabbaz (The Baker) known as ibn Mahruma al-
Mardini. He mastered the literature and the calligraphy
of the Syriac and the Arabic languages. He was still living
on December 5, 1299. Among his writings are excellent
marginal comments on The Book of theDorve’ and another
book which is a reply against the book of Izz al-Dawla
Sad ibn Kammuna the Israelite of Baghdad entitled
Discourse on the Three Sects, that is, Christianity, Judaism
and Islam.® He reproduced the words of ibn Kammuna
and refuted them. This book is one hundred sixty-three
pages and has a unique copy at the Angelcia library in
Rome transcribed in Mardin in 1354.

239. The Metropolitan Gabriel of Bartulli (d. 1300)

Gabriel is the son of the priest Yuhanna. He was bom

at Bartulli and studied under his metropolitan and
uncle Ignatius at St Matthew’s Monastery. He became
a monk and then a priest. He had a good knowledge of
architecture and as a result undertook the construction
of the monastery of the two martyrs Yuhanna bar Najjarin
and his sister Sara in Bartulli in 1284. In it he was

ordained by Mar Gregorius Bar Hebraeus a metropoli-
tan of Jazirat Qardu. He died on September 7, 1300.

By the suggestion of the priest Bahnam he composed
two odes in the twelve-syllable meter: the history of the
most learned man Bar Hebraeus and his brother al-Safi,
covering one hundred forty-five pages in which he
praised them greatly. He composed the first ode, which
is the longer, in 1288 and the second one in 1295. There
are two copies of the first ode 7 and a unique copy of the
second at our library. His poetry is of mediocre quality
and in some parts poor.

In 1291 he drew up an eloquent liturgy beginning
thus: “O, God who art worshipped by all the worlds” and
added unto it an expiatory prayer with a dismissory
prayer. 8 1 Ie also wrote nine husoyos in good style for the
fasting of Nineveh, the scarcity of rain, the driving away
of calamities, and the festival of Mar Malke, all of which
entered the Church rite. Moreover, he wrote a sermon
in eight pages on the observation of Sunday 9 and reli-
gious obligations, and revised the solar calendar in
1285. 10

240. The Ascetic Turn a (Thomas) of Hah

Thomas, who is known as “the lame, ”was a stylite. He

lived probably at the end of the thirteenth and the
beginning of the fourteenth century. He wrote an
appropriate propitiatory prayer for the Mass in rhymed-
prose, beginning thus, “Praise to the one who has a
hidden glory in an eternal manner in the high holy of
holies.” 11 He composed also two more propitiatory
prayers for the commemoration of the martyr Azazel of
Samosata, which in some copies was ascribed to Thomas
of Talla the Stylite (d. 699), and another propitiatory
prayer for the Monday preceding the festival of the
Assumption of the Virgin. 12

241. Barsoum al-Safi, the younger Bar Hebraeus (d.
1307)

Gregory Barsoum al-Safi is brother of the celebrated
Bar Hebraeus. He was brought up by his father in an
environment of learning and God-fearing. He served
his brother as a deacon during his long stay in the East
and studied under him. After his brother’s death, the
Easterners chose him to fill his brother’s position.
Accordingly, the Patriarch Nimrud dressed him with
the habit of a monk, ordained him a priest and then a
maphrian on July 3, 1288. He administered the Church
most properly even humiliating himself for its good at
a time when misfortunes and calamities frequently
befell Christendom, until his death on December 1,
1307.

He was pious, energetic and of good character. He
abridged the liturgy of St.John the Evangelist, 13 com-
pleted the biography of his brother, listing his writings.
Besides, he wrote a short autobiography 14 and continued
his brother’s chronicle in a good style to the year of his
death. It consists of forty pages and has been published.

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

242. The Monk Yeshu ibn Kilo (1309)

He is the monk-priest Yeshu, son of the priest David
bar Kilo, known for his letters. He was born at Hah in
Tur Abdin and studied the Syriac language and became
well-versed in its literature. He is said to have become
known toward the latter days of Bar Madani and was still
living in 1309. 15 He most likely died shortly after that
year. He became a monk and then a priest. When he
became a widower he entered the Monastery of Mar
Hananya and worked on the transcription and binding
of manuscripts. He wrote a booklet containing exquis-
ite parables for the composition of letters in Syriac. Also,
he wrote a group of letters to some of his contemporar-
ies as well as an introduction of elegant style. He is to
blame only for using foreign terms. The Syrian writer
Chorepiscopus Ishaq Armala found a copy of Bar Kilo’s
booklet transcribed in 1290 16 and did well by publishing
it in 1928 and appending to it a group of the letters of
David bar Paul together with specimens of the compo-
sition of Jacob of Bartulli.

243. Patriarch Michael II (d. 1312)

He is Barsoum, Abbot of the Kuwaykhat Monastery.
He was consecrated a patriarch and named Michael in
1292. Onjanuary 6, 1 295, he issued a general proclama-
tion in five pages to the dioceses in the Byzantine
territory, namely, Konya, Sivas, Caesarea, Aqsara,
Qarshihr, Amasya, Niksar, Semando, Konda, and Dawlo
and their villages, stating his rise to the patriarchate,
excommunicating rebels and warning the believers
about the rebel Constantine of Melitene and his fac-
tion. We have copied this proclamation from an old
manuscript in Tur Abdin transcribed in the fourteenth
century. 17 He died on December 7, 1312.

244. Cyril bishop of Hah (1333)

He is Cyril Shimun Alini of Tur Abdin, bishop of
Hah. He was still living in 1 333 and may have lived until
the middle of the fourteenth century. He wrote a
lengthy liturgy in forty-two pages, beginning thus: “O
Eternal God who art above all,” 18 and followed it by an
excellent husoyo beginning with, “Praise to the only
Father the holy” 19 and a third husoyo for the Thursday of
the Palm Sunday week, beginning thus, “Praise to the
Almighty and powerful.”

245. Ibn Wuhayb (d. 1333)

He is Zakhi, or as it is reported, Yusuf Badr al-Din, son
of Ibrahim, known as Bar Wuhayb. He was a native of
Mardin 20 and by origin from Korinsha in Tur Abdin. He
became a monk and studied at the monastery of Mar
Hananya. He was ordained a metropolitan for Mardin
assuming the name Ignatius and then consecrated a
patriarch of Mardin in 1293. He died in 1333 after he
ordained twenty metropolitans and bishops. Although
ambitious for higher position yet he was a man of great
poise and learning.

He wrote a treatise on the dimensions of church
prayers, 21 a booklet in thirty pages called The Fundamen-
tals, at the request of the monk Yusuf al-Kalshi, in which
he interpreted the letters of the Syriac alphabet and
included some spiritual themes. He wrote a similar
book in Arabic in thirty-six pages, 22 a tract on the six
letters of the Syriac alphabet which are affected by
hardness or softness. He also issued ten short canons in
a council he held in 1303 25 and in this same year he drew
up a lengthy and eloquent liturgy in twenty-eight pages
beginning thus: “O God the invisible and incompre-
hensible, the high and graceful who are above test,” 24
and followed it by a husoyo beginning thus: “Praise to the
divine nature, the high and invisible.” 25

246. The Monk Yeshu ibn Khayrun (d. 1335)

Yeshu is son of Master Saliba, son of the priest Ishaq

bar Khayrun. 26 He was born at the village of Hah around
1275 and became a monk at the Monastery of the Virgin
near the village Sidos in the country of Manazgird
shortly before 1299. He was ordained a priest and then
accompanied his father to the Sayyida (Our Lady)
Monastery known as the Qatra Monastery in the moun-
tain of Mardin and died in it on August 19, 1335. 27 He
was a man of letters and a poet. He composed a husoyo
for the night of the Wednesday of King Abgar begin-
ning thus, “Praise be to the Eternal King,” and com-
ments on the lexicon of Bar Bahlul, a copy of which is at
Zafaran. He also composed four odes in the twelve-
syllabic meter, the first unrhymed containing advice to
clerics; 28 the second rhymed and perfect; 29 the third on
rebuking a treacherous pupil (most of it is good) ; 50 and
the fourth on the pillage of the church of the Forty
Martyrs in Mardin and the destruction of the churches
and monasteries of the East in 1333. 51 Furthermore, He
composed seven lines on flowers, poetical rhymed pieces
of mediocre quality 52 and some lines in the twelve-
syllabic meter eulogizing the book Storehouse of Secrets.**

247. Master Saliba ibn Khayrun (d. 1340)

Master Saliba bar Khayrun is well-versed in the Syriac

language and proficient in its calligraphy. He is the
father of the monk Yeshu. He was bom about 1253.
When his wife died he became a monk and was or-
dained a priest at the Monastery of the Virgin in Sidos,
where he was still living in 1323. Atone time he traveled
to the Qatra Monastery where he taught. Some clerics
studied literature under him and his son. He was called
the “Doctor of the East.” He continued to transcribe
manuscripts until 1 340 and died long after this year an
old man. 54 He drew up a husoyo for the festival of St.
Ephraim, beginning thus: “Praise is due to the teacher
of divine wisdom.” Also he wrote two prayers appended
to some husoyos, and revised the calendar of the festivals
for the whole year ascribed to Jacob of Edessa, and
added into it the festivals of a group of saints, particu-
larly the ascetics and martyrs of Tur Abdin, drawn from

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

their histories. This calendar has five copies at Diyarbakr
and the Vatican 55 and our library. It was translated into
Latin and published by Peeters in 1908. He also com-
posed an ode of mediocre quality and a long metrical
dismissory prayer in the twelve-syllabic meter. 56

248. The Deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli (1345)

Deacon Abd Allah, son of Barsoum, son of Abdo of

Bartulli, is a man of letters and a calligrapher. He was
ordained a deacon before 1296. He transcribed two
manuscripts of the offices of ordination by Gabriel,
metropolitan ofal-Jazira, in 1300 to which he appended
two precise historical tracts which attest to his good
handling of the language. Among other things, these
tracts contain the wars between Argon and Qazan Khan
the Mongolian kings with the Egyptian army as well as
the achievements of the Maphrian Barsoum al-Safi. 57
He also served as a secretary of Gregory Matta I (Mat-
thew), maphrian of the East (131 7-1 354.) 58

249. Metropolitan Abu al-Wafa of Hisn Kifa

Abu al-Wafa was bom at Hisn Kifa, and was ordained
a metropolitan for some of the dioceses in Tur Abdin,
probably in the middle of the fourteenth century. We
have read a husoyo by him in the book of Husoyos at the
church of Hisn Kifa transcribed in 1507, praising Mar
Nicolaus (Zakhi), bishop of Mira. It begins thus: “Praise
be to Him who glorifies the memory of his heroes in all
the ages.” This is all that we know about him.

250. The Monk Ibrahim of Mardin (1365)

Ibrahim lived in the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tury. He wrote an eight-page historical tract as related to
him by the priest Aaron of Arzenjan and the Metropoli-
tan Jacob Haddad of Hattakh. In this tract he men-
tioned the family of the former, the church of Arzenjan
and the fate of the magnificent church objects, the
precious books which were at the Monastery of Mar
Barsoum, the seat of the patriarch, and the manuscripts
transcribed by the monk Zebina of Shalabdin. He also
mentioned the library of the Syrian Monastery in Egypt.
We found two copies of this tract in the villages Rizwan
and Esther: one copy was transcribed at the end of the
fourteenth century and the other at the end of the
sixteenth century. 59

251. Yusuf (Joseph) ibn Gharib, metropolitan of
Amid (d. 1375)

Joseph is the son of the noble elder Cyriacus, son of
Gharib of Amid. He became a monk at the Monastery of
Mar Hananya, was ordained a priest shortly before 1 340
and then consecrated a metropolitan of Diyarbakr,
assuming the name Dionysius. He most probably died
shortly before 1375. A proficient writer, Bar Gharib
wrote six husoyos for Lent and Palm Sunday. His name
appears on these husoyos in ancient copies in Tur Abdin
and the Zafaran Monastery. These husoyos have become

part of the Church rite. In 1 360 he wrote yet another
husoyo in seventeen pages, beginning with: “O God the
most holy and blessed, the ocean of mercy and spring of
good.” 40

252. The Monk Daniel of Mardin (1382)

Daniel, who is also known as Ibn Isa, is an eminent
learned man. He was born at Mardin in 1327, became a
monk and then was ordained a priest at the Qatra
Monastery. He studied and excelled in the Syriac lan-
guage. Burned by desire to continue his studies, Daniel
went to Egypt in 1356, where he spent seventeen years
studying Arabic literature, dialectics and philosophy.
Later he returned to his own country. 41 He wrote in
pleasant Arabic Kitab Usui al-Din (The Book of the Funda-
mentals of Religion) for which he was persecuted by the
tyrant ruler, but the people ransomed him in 1382. In
a tractwritten in Syriac he related his adversity. 42 He also
abridged Bar Hebraeus’s books Semhe ( The Book of Lights ) ,
Ausar Roze ( The Storehouse of Secrets) and the Elhikon x all
of which are lost. He composed nine lines of verse
rebuking a morally corrupt priest, 45 and abridged in
Arabic seventeen chapters of Bar Hebraeus’s book
Hudoye (Nomocanon) , 44 and wrote Arabic comments on
a Syriac version of the same book, 45 as well as dialectical
and philosophical comments on the margin of Bar
Hebraeus’s The Cream of Wisdom. 46 Furthermore, he
wrote a book in Arabic entitled Usui al-Din wa Shifa
Qulub al-Muminin ( The Fundamentals of Religion and the
Healing of the Hearts of Believers) of which five copies are
extant. 47 A commentary on the Nicene Creed has been
ascribed to him. 48 Some scribes, however, misidentified
him with his namesake and master, Daniel ibn al-
Hattab, a contemporary of Bar Hebraeus. It is also
reported that he composed two lines of verse against
Khamis Qirdahi, the Nestorian poet. 49 The scribe who
copied the letter of Yeshu bar Kilo in 1290 mentioned
for him a book called The Verification of Our Belief which
may be the same book written by Ibn al-Hattab.

253. Patriarch Ibrahim ibn Gharib (d. 1412)

Patriarch Ibrahim is a brother of the Metropolitan

Yusuf (Joseph) ibn Gharib. He became a monk at the
Mar Hananya Monastery and was ordained a priest
before 1355. He loved learning and had a collection of
books. 50 About 1 375 he succeeded his brother as Metro-
politan of Amid, assuming the name Cyril. He compiled
a liturgy containing anaphoras (liturgy or missal) of the
Fathers of the Church, including one written by his
brother in thirteen pages. 51 He wrote a husoyo for the
morning service of the Saturday of Lazarus. 52 He was
installed as a patriarch of Mardin in 1382 and died in
1412.

254. Philoxenus the Scribe (d. 1421)

Philoxenus was ordained a metropolitan and then

consecrated patriarch of Antioch in 1387 at the

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Kuwaykhat Monastery. He is the second patriarch by
this name. He resided in al-Sham (Syria) and died in
1421. The writer who continued Bar Hebraeus’s Ecclesi-
astical History praised him greatly. He stated, “Philoxenus
was an excellent writer and a competent doctor in both
religious and secular sciences. He is only matched by
the priest Isaiah of Basibrina.” 53 However, we have
discovered none of his writings.

255. The Priest Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425)

The priest Isaiah is the son of the deacon Denha, son
of Tuma (Thomas) Kughaym of Basibrina. He was a
good writer and poet whose poetry is clear and natural.
He flourished in the last two decades of the fourteenth
and the first quarter of the fifteenth centuries. He
travelled to Jerusalem on a pilgrimage, an unusual
accomplishment in those times, in 1417 and died in
1425. 54 He was the master of language in his time. He
established a school in his town which was the center of
the Syriac language. Many studied language and reli-
gious sciences under him. For generations his family
inherited and preserved these sciences. He composed
two odes in the twelve-syllabic meter describing the
calamities inflicted by Timur Lang (Tamerlane) upon
the Middle East in general and Tur Abdin in particular.
In one of these odes he criticized those who are not
qualified and yet fight for offices of the priesthood. The
first one begins thus, “O God who art incomprehensible
by mind.” 55 It was published by Qirdahi. 56 The second
one begins thus: “Hear my brethren and marvel.” 57 He
also wrote a song beginning thus: “I am drunk with
sorrow and torment” He drew up a husoyo for the
festival of the martyrs Addai the Apostle, Abhai and
Mama in 1391 beginning with: “Praise be to the shining
sun,” 58 and finally he organized the order for the mar-
riage of widows and wrote an introduction for it. 59

256. The Priest Sahdo

Sahdo was a poet who lived in the first half of the
fifteenth century. He composed a rhymed hymn on the
end of the world in the heptasyllabic and pentasyllable
meters. 60

257. The Priest Simon of Amid (1450)

Simon was ordained a priest by the Patriarch Bahnam.
He taught Syriac at the school of the Forty Martyrs in
Mardin. He died about 1450. We read in an old manu-
script in his own handwriting ten husoyos composed by
him for the festival of the Cross and the Friday of Gold
(the first Friday after Pentecost) and for the Sunday of
the Dispensation of our Lord, the Saints Azazel, Cyriacus,
Macarius and a certain martyr. 61 But these husoyos did
not enter the church rite.

258. Qawma the Patriarch of Tur Abdin (d. 1454)

Qawma is the son of the chieftain Jafal of Basibrina.

At the beginning he was ordained a bishop for the

Qartamin Monastery, but later was transferred to the
diocese of Hah and then consecrated a patriarch for
Tur Abdin in 1444. 6Z He died in 1454. He was knowl-
edgeable in the works of many writers. He drew up a
lengthy liturgy in good style, beginning thus: “O God
who art thou the safety and peace of all people,” fol-
lowed by a husoyo beginning thus: “Blessed art thou
inviting sacrifice.”

259. Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454)

Patriarch Bahnam is son of Yuhanna of the Habbo
Kanni family originally from Bartulli, but he was bom at
Hidl. He became a monk at the Qartamin Monastery
and was ordained a priest. In 1404 he was consecrated
a maphrian under the name Basilius and succeeded the
Patriarch Ibrahim on the See of Mardin under the
name Ignatius on July 24, 1412. After the death of
Patriarch Basilius V, he was able because of his lenient
policies to convince the diocese of the patriarch to
proclaim him a legitimate patriarch. Thus in 1445 they
proclaimed him Patriarch of Antioch. He died on De-
cember 10, 1454. Patriarch Bahnam was one of the best
writers and poets of his time. There is no little creative-
ness in his poetry.

1. He drew up ten husoyos in a pleasant style, three of
which are alphabetically arranged. They are on the Pre-
sentation of our Lord in the Temple, the morning of the
festival of our Lady over the crops; three for Lent, and four
for the festivals of the saints Asya, Abhai, Barsohde and
Saba. In this latter husoyo he used Greek terms. 65

2. He selected commentaries from the book of Daniel
of Salh and fixed them with his reinterpretation on a
manuscript containing the Psalms written and punctu-
ated by him in 1425. 64 Chabot thought that these com-
mentaries were written in the tenth century. 65 In 1901 G.
Diettrich published the introduction of these commen-
taries together with two treatises in Giesen.

3. He drew up a liturgy arranged according to the
Syriac alphabet, beginning thus: “O God who art the sea
of safety and the unfathomable depth of the water of
peace.” To this he prefixed a husoyo beginning thus:
“Praise to the bread of life,” 66 and appended to it a
dismissory prayer, which he composed in 1405, in the
heptasyllabic meter arranged to the alphabet.

4. He composed eleven odes, five of which are in the
twelve-syllabic meter. Two of these odes covering sixty
pages in praise of the virtues of the martyr Mar Bahnam, 67
one rather lengthy in twenty-eight pages on the out-
standing traits of the martyr Mar Basus, 68 published by
Chabot and then Bedjan anonymously. The former
thought it was composed in the twelfth century, 69 while
Baumstark thought it was composed at the beginning of
the Middle Ages. 70 He also composed an ode on the
martyr Mar Saba which has been lost, and another ode
in thirteen pages on repentance in which he censures
himself. It begins thus: “O Jesus who art the Light which
illumined the world.” 71 He also composed three odes in

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the heptasyllabic meter on supplication to God 72 and
repentance, one of which begins thus: “What is it with
you my soul that you have gone astray in deception." 73
Furthermore, he composed three songs, one on the
passion of Christ, arranged according to the alphabet, 74
and the second in praise of the Virgin Mary, beginning
thus: “I wonder if the mentioning of your beautiful
traits.” This song is still sung during the festivals of the
Virgin before the reading of the Gospel. His third song
is on repentance. 75 If his poems were collected they
would make a good anthology.

260. Barsoum Madani, maphrian of the East (1455)

Barsoum Madani studied under the priest Tuma

(Thomas) and mastered the fundamentals of the Syriac
language and its literature as well as religious sciences.
He became a monk at the Monastery of Mar \hqub
(Jacob) in Salh and was ordained a priest. He became
known for his ascetic life and piety and, therefore, was
chosen by the patriarch Bahnam to become the
Maphrian of the East. He was consecrated on April 9,
1422 under the name Basilius. He fulfilled responsibili-
ties of his office most appropriately and became re-
puted for his outstanding virtues and deeds. He died at
the beginning of 1455.

In 1417 Maphrian Barsoum abridged Bar Salibi’s
scholia on the Gospels and added unto them useful
information he had gathered from the writing of the
doctors of the church. This abridgement in his own
handwriting forms a thick volume and is preserved at
our library. In it he recorded his genealogy and some
aspects of his affairs. Two copies were transcribed from
this manuscript, one at the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, 74 and the second one in 1713. 77 Both of these
copies erroneously referred to Maphrian Barsoum as a
monk, contrary to what is recorded in the margin of the
original copy. We have read prose songs he composed,
one on the woman sinner 78 and the other on the
consecration of the Holy Chrism and a metrical song to
the tune of “Rise, O Paul.”

261. The Monk Gharib of Manimim (1476)

Gharib is son of Barsoum of Manimim. He became a

monk and then was ordained a priest. He studied at the
Monastery of Qartamin. In 1470 he wrote an order for
the festival of Mar Awgayn, into which he incorporated
the pseudo story of the saint 79 He participated with the
monk Yeshu in writing husoyos for the festival of Mar
Barsoum, bishop of Kafrtut and Khabura. 80 He was still
living in 1476.

262. Patriarch Aziz Ibn al-Ajuz (Bar Sobto) (d. 1481 )

Ibn al-Ajuz, also known as Abu al-Maani, was bom at

the village of Basila near Mardin. He became a monk at
the Qartamin Monastery and followed a strict life of
asce deism and austerity. He studied under Master Yeshu
of Basibrina and became reputed for his virtue. He was

ordained a priest and then a bishop for the diocese of
Hah. On Maundy Thursday of the year 1461 he was
invited to ascend the See of Tur Abdin.He died in 1481.
He was very strict in observing church rules. In a correct
but unsophisticated style he wrote the following:

1 . A small book in seven chapters (covering forty-six
pages) on spiritual revelations which an ascetic saw
through the eye of his mind how God dwells in the
hearts of the children of light, the earthly paradise and
the souls which inhabit it, the creation of Angels, hu-
man souls, repentance, and the fires that burn sin. He
called it The Ascent of the Mind. 81

2. A book called The Path of Truth in fifty-five pages
and slightly imperfect, containing useful knowledge for
monks. 82

3. A treatise on the Mass, on the person who does not
deserve to receive the holy communion and on the
priest. 83

4. Two sermons for his parishioners: the first one on
the passing away of this world and the immortality of the
world to come. The second one con tains an exhortation
to the clergy and a warning against the evils of magic. 84

263. The Monk Malke Saqo (d. 1490)

Malke is son of Yuhanna (John) Kughaym nick-
named Saqo. He was born at Basibrina and became a
monk at the Qartamin Monastery and mastered the
Syriac language and literature. He composed in the
twelve-syllabic meter a good lengthy ode (25 pages) in
praise of the Virgin Mary. In another copy this ode is
entitled the Nativity of Our Lord in Human Body. 85
Another ode is against those who deny the virginity of
the Virgin Mary. 86 He also compiled an order for the
Friday of the White, from old copies and wrote some
husoyos. We have read in the service book for the princi-
pal festivals of the whole year which he completed in
1484, a commentary on the meaning of the procession
in the Church. 87 According to the Book of Life and as
stated by the priest Addai, he died in 1490, not 1400 as
Mingana has erroneously stated.

264. Master Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1492)

Master Yeshu is son of the priest Isaiah of the Kughaym
family. He studied the Syriac language and its literature
under his father. He renounced worldly life and en-
tered the Qartamin Monastery, where he led an ascetic
life. He was ordained a priest before 1439 and for
sometime he followed the life of a stylite. Under him
studied a group of eminent church dignitaries as well as
monks and priests from Tur Abdin. He lived much
longer than his own colleagues and died at a very old age
in 1492. He wrote the following:

1. Forty husoyos for the following: the Friday of Gold,
the morning service of the Assumption of the Virgin, for
the saints Philoxenus, Aaron, Barbara, Shimun Zaytuni,
Shallita, Aho, Mary Magdalene, Simon and Qawma the
stylites, the Egyptian ascetics, Ibrahim the ascetic of the

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high mountain, Daniel, Malke, Demete, Addai, Sergius
and Bacchus and Jareth. He used Greek terms in the
husoyo of Mar Aho and arranged it together with the
husoyo of the evening of the festival of Mar Daniel
according to the alphabet. We found these husoyos in
Tur Abdin, particularly Basibrina. Yeshu’s prose is good
but inferior to that of Abu Nasr of Bartulli.

2. A complete order for the feast of Mar Dodo
(David). 88

3. An ode in the twelve-syllabic meter, covering fifty-
three pages in praise of Mar Dodo 89 and another ode in
the heptasyllabic meter lamenting himself. 90

4. Organization of the twenty-four Sundays following
Easter. 91

Yeshu’s verse is mediocre but he has transcribed
manuscripts which testify to his excellent calligraphy
and punctuation of texts.

265. Patriarch Yuhanna ibn Shay Allah (d. 1493)

Patriarch Shay Allah belongs to the family of the

priest Abu al-Karam, originally from Bartulli. I lis father
is Shay Allah son of Sad al-Din, who is also nicknamed
Ibn al-Asfar. Patriarch Shay Allah was born at Mardin in
1442 and studied Syriac literature under the priests
Shimun of Amid and Yuhanna of Mardin as well as the
monks Yeshu of Basibrina and Dawud (David) bar
Qashafo of Qalat al-Imra’a. 92 He also studied astronomy,
dialectics, philosophy and also theology in Mardin,
Syria and Egypt. He was ordained a bishop of al-Sawar
and Amid in 1471 and was elevated to the patriarchal
throne in 1483 with the name Yuhanna XIV. He died in
his middle age in 1 493, after having ordained fourteen
metropolitans and bishops. I found a few lines of verse
of his in the heptasyllabic meter, expostulating his
friend the monk Dawud of Hims. 9S In 1496 an anony-
mous writer who maybe one of his disciples or a relative
wrote his life story in eighteen pages in a correct but
rather involved and ungraceful style. 94

266. Metropolitan Gurgis of Basibrina (d. 1495)

Gurgis became a monk at the Qartamin Monastery.

In 1450 he was ordained a metropolitan with the name
Yuhanna. He was the most prominent among the bish-
ops of his time. Twice he performed the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem and bought a house for two hundred golden
dinars and made it an endowment of our St. Mark’s
Monastery in Jerusalem. 95 He died at Mar I Iananya
Monastery in 1495. In 1462 he compiled a liturgy from
nine liturgies by doctors of the church, all of which
share the common name Yuhanna, including his own
name. To this compilation he contributed five pieces.
The compiled liturgy begins thus: “O Lord the giver of
safety and the Lord ofpeace.”It con tains four prayers by
a bishop named Yuhanna bar Butahi, who may be a
fourteenth-century bishop from Tur Abdin. The com-
position of the two Yuhannas is good. 96 Yuhanna also
compiled a liturgy from seven liturgies written by seven

fathers of the church, all of them named Jacob. 97

267. The Monk Dawud (David) of Hims (1500?)

Dawud is son of Abd al-Karim, son of Salah known as
the Himsi (or the Phoenician). 98 He was born at al-
Qaryatayn in 1431 and moved to Hims when he was a
young boy. He studied under the priest Musa Mukaysif
and entered the Monastery of Mar Musa in al-Nabk
where he became a monk and concentrated on learn-
ing. He was ordained a deacon. While still young he
went to the Zafaran Monastery in 1459 to study. He
remained at the monastery for a while, was ordained a
priest and then he moved to the Monastery of the Cross
near Hisn Kifa. For a time he became the secretary of
the Maphrian Aziz (Ibn al-Ajuz) and experienced chang-
ing vicissitudes until he reached Constantinople in
1481. He met with misfortune until he died around
1490 or about 1500.

Dawud was a man of learning. His verse and prose
style are of good and bad quality, particularly his prose
which is saturated with rhetorical techniques like
paronomasia and juxta position of contrasting ideas.

Of his excellent writing are five husoyos for the saints
Stephen and Aaron and three for Easter. One of these
three, which is rather lengthy, is on the eighth Sunday
after Easter. It closes with a supplicatory prayer ar-
ranged alphabetically. It has entered the church rite. 99
He also has commentaries on the Chronicle , the seven
times of prayer and the Psalms. 100 He wrote his autobi-
ography until his middle age 101 and the biography of
Yuhanna Dalyatha the Nestorian ascetic as related by his
master. 102 Furthermore, he abridged the commentary
on the Psalms by Daniel of Salh, adding unto it some
commentaries of Bar Salibi and Bar Hebraeus. In this
abridged commentary he punctuated the Biblical verses
following the method of Bar Hebraeus in his The Trea-
sure-house of Secrets, and wrote an excellent introduction
to it. 103 Chabot thought that this abridgement was writ-
ten in the tenth century. It has three old copies 104 as well
as new copies, the most recent of which are two in
Boston. 105 In this abridged commentary on the Psalms
he related some of the affairs of Muhammad Beg ibn al-
Rumi the philosopher. 106

Of his excellent verse are two odes: the first on
sojourn 107 in ten pages in the heptasyllabic meter and
rhymed; the second on repentance, alphabetically ar-
ranged, 108 two odes in the twelve-syllabic meter on a
eulogy of Patriarch Aziz Ibn al-Ajuz (Sobto), 109 the
second is a dismissary prayer at the end of the Mass; 110 a
few lines censuring those who seek learning because of
their failure in life, 111 an ode in the heptasyllabic meter
composed in 1466 praising his contemporary ascetics of
Tur Abdin, 112 and a song to the tune of Qum Faulos
(“Rise up, O Paul”), lamenting the sciences of the
Syrians and the loss of their manuscripts. 115

Of his strange verse are two odes in the twelve-syllabic
meter he composed in 1462. The words which begin the

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

lines of these odes are arranged according to the letters
of the alphabet They also could be read forward and
backward following the practice of al-Subawi, 114 which
is, in fact, a trivial ornamental style, in which he failed. 115
He also wrote eulogies of this style to be said during
their reading of the Gospel called Koruzutha which he
filled with Greek terms, making them unpalatable.
Thank goodness that these eulogies were dropped a
long time ago. Finally he translated into mediocre
Arabic two or three husoyosund wrote in Arabic a treatise
on the priest, the Mass, vows, tithes which are not free
from grammatical mistakes.

268. The Priest Addai of Basibrina (d. 1502)

Addai is son of the priest Malke, son of the priest

Addai. He was born at Basibrina and studied Syriac
under his uncles, Master Gurgis and the monk Yeshu.
He was ordained a priest in 1464 and for a time taught
at the school of his town which had more than three
hundred pupils. 116 He became reputed for his learning
and many students were graduated under him. He was
also known for his neat thick handwriting. 117 In 1490 he
went to Jerusalem to perform the pilgrimage and died
shortly after 1502. Some of his sons became priests.

In correct but unsophisticated style, he wrote some
husoyos, two of which are for the morning service of the
Saturday of Lazarus, 118 one for the festival of Mar Azazel,
and eight for the festivals of the Saints Awgayn and
Basus, Thaddaeus, i.e. Addai of Basibrina. 119 I have
come to believe that he is the anonymous writer who
continued Chronography and the Ecclesiastical History of
Bar Hebraeus. He is also to be commended for writing
the history of a period when historical facts were rare. 120
He wrote the biographies, which have been published,
of patriarchs and maphrians from 1285 to 1496. Fur-
thermore, He wrote three short tracts which have been
appended to Bar Hebraeus’s Chronography. They are as
follows:

1. The invasion of the (Huns) Mongols of Diyarbakr.

2. On the destruction of Tur Abdin by Timur Lang
(Tamerlane).

3. A historical tract in thirty-seven pages covering the
period from 1394 to 1492. These three tracts have two
copies 121 and were published by Bruns in 1790. The
third tract, which is the longest, was re-published by
Behnsch in 1838. The correction of the relapses we
found in his edition compared with the manuscripts we
have come across are slight. 122

269. Metropolitan Sarjis of Hah (d. 1508)

Sergius is son of Yusuf (Joseph) Qaruna of Hah. He

became a monk in 1470 at the Cross Monastery where
he was trained in asceticism by Masud the head monk of
Tur Abdin, and reached ahigh degree of ascetic life. He
was ordained a priest and performed the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem twice, in 1489, and 1495. He also visited
Cyprus. He was consecrated a metropolitan of Hah in

1505 under the name Dionysius. He most likely died in
1508.

He was a good writer and calligrapher, praised by his
contemporaries. He wrote a useful tract on his trip to
Cyprus and Jerusalem in which he described some
places and the holy shrines. Only a fragment of it
survives in his own handwriting. 125 He also drew up in
1504 two husoyos for the Epiphany and the Saturday of
Lazarus and composed some metrical supplicatory
prayers and a rather involved metrical puzzle onjerusa-
lem. 124

270. Patriarch Nuh the Lebanese (d. 1509)

Patriarch Nuh was a prominent church dignitary

known for his piety and good administration. He was
also a writer and a poet but some of his verse is marred
by the unnaturalness of style which was prevalent in his
time. He was at the village of Baqufa in the mountain of
Lebanon in 1451 and was converted from Maronitism
to Orthodoxy. He studied the Syriac language and
religious sciences under the monk-priest T uma of Hims
in the Monastery of Mar Musa the Abyssinian. He was
ordained a priest and then a metropolitan for Hims in
1480 under the name Cyril. He was consecrated a
Maphrian of the East in 1489 and ascended the patriar-
chal throne in 1493 and was named Ignatius. He died at
Hama onjuly 28, 1509, after having ordained thirteen
metropolitans and bishops.

Patriarch Nuh has an anthology in ninety-two pages,
containing rhymed odes and verse pieces in the twelve-
syllabic meter, some ofwhich are arranged according to
the alphabet as well as to his name. They are on suppli-
cation, repentance, the state of the soul and how to
control it, complaint against vicissitudes and the injus-
tices of the rulers who are the descendants of the Huns
and Kurds, description of roses, sojourn and communi-
cation with friends. Among these are two odes which he
delivered to Hims and Lebanon as well as eulogy of the
ascetic priest Tuma of Hims. Another ode declares that
the Lord is life and that He offers it to those who believe
in Him; yet another, consisting of 136 lines on the
universal and particular natures, which he composed in
response to the request of Malke, metropolitan of
Madan. It contains some poor usages as a result of his
adherence to one rhyme. He also wrote some puzzles
which are rather poor. 125 A number of manuscripts in
his neat handwriting have survived, as well as a hymn in
Arabic on the Virgin and a very brief historical tract

271. The Monk Aziz of Midyat (1510)

Monk Aziz is son of the monk Saliba, son of Basus. He
was bom at Midyat and later joined the staff of Patriarch
Masud by whom he was trained for the ascetic life, and
whom he served for forty-five years at the Cross Monas-
tery and at Salh after he had become a monk in 1 465 and
a priest In a polished style he wrote the biography of his
instructor, Patriarch Masud, after he became a metro-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

politan. This biography consists of six pages. He com-
piled the ascetic treatises of Patriarch Masud in a book
entided The Spiritual Ship, which otherwise would have
been lost He also recorded the calamities which befell
the Middle East in general and Tur Abdin in particular,
together with political and ecclesiastical events from
1501 to 1510, in four tracts, which we copied from his
manuscripts in Amid, Edessa and Tur Abdin. 126 He died
shortly after 1510.

272. Patriarch Masud of Zaz (d. 1512)

Patriarch Masud is son of Shimun (Simon) . He was
bom at the village of Zaz in 1431. In 1453 he resided at
the Monastery of the Cross in Bethel where he lived a
strict ascetic life. At the beginning he was an illiterate
but when he took to ascetic life in some caves he was
enlightened through divine providence, and began to
dictate to his companions wonderful spiritual treatises
without his knowledge. Later he studied the Syriac
language and was ordained a priest In 1464 he was
made the superior abbot of all the monks of Tur Abdin
and trained more than a hundred men in the ascetic
life, to follow strictly ascetic rules. For this reason,
Patriarch Masud is considered an innovator of monas-
ticism in his time. In 1481 he was ordained a metropoli-
tan of Zarjal and Hisn Kifa under the name Basilius.
Through his efforts the number of monks increased in
Tur Abdin and its monasteries which were either built
or renovated until they numbered more than two hun-
dred by the end of his life. In 1493 he became the
patriarch of Tur Abdin. But he made a mistake by
ordaining a maphrian for Tur Abdin and twelve bish-
ops, most of whom had no dioceses. As a result he was
opposed by the incumbent bishops as well as by the
dignitaries who paid allegiance to the Patriarch of
Antioch. He shut himself for a time in a monastery in
Kharput but later resumed his church affairs until his
death on February 11, 1512. 127

He wrote a book consisting of seven hundred pages
entitled The Spiritual Ship fm a smooth style, into which
he incorporated several treatises on asceticism, and
worship. The original copy of this book is in the Sayyida
(The Virgin) Monastery. 128 It was completed in 1481,
but is slightly imperfect It has also a new copy 129 and
fragments as well. 150 We found in Amid five odes com-
posed by him: three in the twelve-syllabic meter and two
in the heptasyllabic meter, 151 as well as an ode in Paris. 152
We read at the church of Qellith in 1909 his long liturgy
beginning with “O Lord God who art the fountain of
blessings and the sea of beneficence.” This liturgy con-
sist of thirty-five pages, transcribed in 1615. It is pre-
ceded by a husoyo beginning with, “Praise and thanks to
the Holy Trinity, "which was lost during the World War
I. His biographer and some of his contemporaries
mentioned that he had written several husoyos and two
liturgies, one short and the other of medium length.

273. Jacob I, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1517)

Jacob is son of the monk Abd Allah, known as Ibn al-

Muzawwaq. He was born at al-Ahmadiyya village in al-
Sawr and became a monk at the Monastery of Mar Musa
(Moses) in al-Nabk. He studied under the Master and
Metropolitan Musa Ubayd of Sadad. 155 He became effi-
cient in calligraphy. He was ordained a priest and went
to the Monastery of Mar Hananya and then in 1480 to
the Monastery of Mar Abhai. In 1496 he was ordained a
metropolitan of Amid under the name Philoxenus. 154
He was installed as patriarch in 1512 under the name
IgnatiusJacob. 155 He died in 15l7. 156 Hewasan efficient
writer. One of his writings is ahistorical tract containing
some of the chronicles of the monk David of Hims
which we have copied from an old manuscript in his
own handwriting. 157 He also wrote comments on some
festivals and composed a few verses in the twelve syllabic
meter in which he calls himself to repentance. 158

274. Yusuf al-Gurji metropolitan of Jerusalem (d.
1537)

Metropolitan Yusuf al-Gurji was bom at Aleppo and
was raised by the Patriarch Yuhanna (John) XIV after
the death of his parents. He studied under the Patriarch
Jacobi, became a monk at the Zafaran Monastery where
he was ordained a priest in 1495. 159 He became profi-
cient in grammar, literature and calligraphy. We found
precious manuscripts transcribed by him at the Church
of Hisn Kifa and at the Oxford and Zafaran libraries.
About 1510 or 1512 he was ordained a metropolitan for
Jerusalem under the name Gregorius. For a time Hims,
Damascus, T ripoli and Mardin were added unto his own
diocese. He died in 1537, leaving behind great accom-
plishments to immortalize his name. 140

Of his writings are three eloquent husoyos, one of
them, written in 1507, in eight pages, is for the festival
of Mar Zakhi (Nicolaus) , was arranged according to the
alphabet and could be read forward or backward. 141 He
also wrote comments on the chronicles of his contem-
porary fathers of the church and a neat and effective
introduction to the Cream of Wisdom by Bar Hebraeus,
which he transcribed in his own handwriting. 142 Fur-
thermore, in 1533, he revised the order of assuming the
monastic leather habit by collating it with the Coptic
and Ethiopian originals. He composed some rhymed
verse on the path of the perfect ones, but they are forced
and complicated. 145

275. Abd al-Ghani al-Mansuri, maphrian of the East
(d. 1575)

Abd al-Ghani was born at the village Mansuriyya near
Mardin. His father was the priest Istephan. He became
a monk at the Monastery of Mar Hananya and studied
Syriac grammar and etymology under some masters of
his time. He devoted his time to the reading of religious
sciences in which he became proficient and was made a
priest. He was ordained a metropolitan and chosen as a

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

deputy patriarch. At the beginning of 1557 he assumed
the maphrianate of the East under the name Basilius.
He died on June 19, 1575.

Maphrian Mansuri wrote a lengthy liturgy in seventy
pages in which he used rhetorical ornamentation. It is
a testimony of his profound knowledge of the Syriac
language and composition. It is, indeed, unequalled
among the liturgies of the same kind. It begins thus,
“Eternal intellect whose existence is imperative.” 144

276. The Patriarch Nimat Allah (1587)

Nimat Allah is son of the Maqdisi Yuhanna Nur al-
Din. He was born at Mardin and in 1535, while still
young, he went to the Zafaran Monastery where he
became a monk. He studied church sciences and Syriac
literature and was ordained a priest He also studied a
litde of history, logic, astronomy, geodesy, medicine
and the art of drawing. He was ordained a maphrian of
the East in 1555 and later elevated to the Patriarchal
throne atthe beginning of 1557 under the name Ignatius.
He resided at Amid but also administered the dioceses
of Edessa and Syria. In 1 562 he wen t tojerusalem for the
pilgrimage. He became popular for his good conduct,
impressive stature and pleasant company. After having
ordained nineteen metropolitans and bishops he was
afflicted by a misfortune on March 10, 1576, which
forced him to relinquish his position and leave secretly
for a monastery near Sivas. He composed an ode eulo-
gizing himself and his misfortune and his separation
from his relatives. He left the East helpless and broken-
hearted because of injustice, and arrived in Rome in
October, 1576. In Rome he became known for his
knowledge. He assisted astronomers in amending the
Gregorian calendar. But he spent his life in grief. He
most likely adopted the Roman doctrine and having
become a Roman Catholic, died shortly after 1587. 145

Patriarch Nimat Allah’s prose is excellent although it
is involved and intricate in some parts. One of his
writings is a letter apologizing for himselP 46 and a tract
he wrote in 1580 describing in detail the kingdoms of
Europe, especially Italy, 147 and a treatise on the Gregorian
calendar. 148 His Syriac poetry is clear and his rhymed
ode in the twelve syllabic meter is a fine one. Only fifty
lines of it have reached us. 149 He also has some writings
in Arabic which are not totally free from grammatical
mistakes. 150

277. Wanes (Iyawannis) Wanki, metropolitan of
Cappadocia and Edessa (1624)

Wanes is the son of Maqdisi Mardiros Najjar the
Armenian. He was born at Wank, a village in Karkar, and
in 1566 became a monk at the Virgin and Mar Zakka
Monasteries situated in the mountains of the province
of Karkar. He studied the Syriac language and literature
and wrote in a pleasant style. He was ordained a priest
and twice performed the pilgrimage tojerusalem. For
awhile he resided at the Monastery of Mar Abhai, but he

spent a great deal of effort in renovating the Monastery
of Mar Zakka in 1588. In 1590 he became the abbot of
Mar Barsoum Monastery, but later returned to his
monastery. About 1599 he was ordained a metropolitan
of Cappadocia and Edessa under the name Gregorius.
He died about 1624. He was known for his piety. He
mastered the fine yet beautiful Karkari script. 151 We
found in his own handwriting, in extremely fine script, 152
four Gospels and a book of Psalms. He also wrote brief
historical tracts and comments on the monasteries of
Karkar 1 55 as well as the events in his time, themostuseful
of which is the account of the trouble between the two
Patriarchs Pilate and Hidayat Allah and their reconcili-
ation in the year 1591-1 593. 154

278. The Deacon Sarkis ibn Ghurayr (d. 1669)

Deacon Sarkis is son of the bishop Yuhanna, son of

Abbud, son of Ghurayr al-Zirbabi. He was born at
Damascus and under his father he studied the funda-
mentals of the Syriac language and its literatures. He
was ordained a deacon. What attests to his proficiency in
the Syriac language and its literatures is his venture,
before 1661, to translate Bar Hebraeus’s Lamp of the
Sanctuaries into Arabic. His translation is partly good,
partly of medium quality and pardy poor because of his
inadequate knowledge of the Arabic language. This
translation isextantin several manuscripts, the oldest of
which are the two man uscripts at Paris 155 and Zafaran. 156
Deacon Ghurayr died about 1669, a young man. His
father, the Bishop of Damascus (1668-1684) composed
a metrical discourse in the heptasyllabic meter criticiz-
ing a group who turned against Orthodoxy. 157 But this
discourse is in some ways poor. Deacon Ghurayr also
wrote useful polemic letters in Arabic 158 and made some
poor translations.

279. The Bishop Hidayat Allah of Khudayda (1693)

Bishop Hidayat Allah is son of Shammo. He was bom

at Khudayda ( the village of Qaraqosh near Mosul, Iraq)
and studied Syriac under the priest Abd al-MasihJ umua.
He was ordained a deacon and then a priest. When he
became a widower in 1661 he became a monk at the
Monastery of Mar Bahnam. He moved to some other
monasteries and in 1685 he accompanied Basilius Yalda
the Khudaydi to Malabar in India. Yalda ordained him
a bishop and named him Iyawannis. He succeeded
Yalda in Malabar until his death in 1693. He composed
an ode in the hep ta-syllabic meter in praise of the Virgin
and a letter containing general canons for the Malabar
Church. 159

280. Ishaq (Isaac) patriarch of Antioch (1724)

Patriarch Ishaq is the son of Maqdisi Azar. He was

bom at Mosul and became a monk and was ordained a
priest at St. Matthew’s Monastery. He became a bishop
of this monastery and was elevated to the maphrianate
of the East in 1687 and later to the office of the

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

patriarchate in 1709 and was named Ignatius. He re-
signed his position because of old age in 1724. He was
an energetic church dignitary who performed good
deeds. 160 While still a maphrian before 1 699, he wrote a
little book in fifteen chapters, 161 on Syriac etymology
and derivatives.

281. The Priest Yuhanna (John) of Basibrina (d.
1729)

John is son of the priest Aziz, son of the priest Isaiah
nicknamed Qardash the Qalanzi by origin butwas bom
and raised in Basibrina. He studied under masters of his
time and was ordained a priest in 1 702. He died in 1 729.
He composed two rhymed odes, the first in the
dodecasyllabic meter on prayer; 162 the second, in the
heptasyllabic meter, on the invasion of Tur Abdin in
October, 1714. 163 His verse is of mediocre quality.

282. Maphrian Shimun (Simon) (d. 1740)

Mar Basilius Shimun, son ofMalke of Manimim, is a
unique learned man of his time. He became a monk at
a monastery in Tur Abdin before 1695, and was or-
dained a priest Because of his ascetic and virtuous life,
he was ordained a maphrian for Tur Abdin in 1710
under the name Basilius. In the following year he
returned to his ascetical life and worship. About 1 727,
he resumed the administration of his diocese until he
was killed by the tyrant Abdal Agha the Kurd on April 6,
1 740. He died a martyr for his religion and canon law. 164
He was a good church father who mastered the Syriac
language in which he wrote and composed poetry. His
poetry is clear and pleasant. He also obtained a fair
knowledge of religious sciences by reading the books of
the church learned men. Following are his books:

1. Theology, in twelve parts, each divided into ten
chapters written in eloquent language. It discusses the
Trinity and the unity of God, the procession of the Holy
Spirit, the Incarnation, the Nativity, the Redemption,
the refutation of purgatory, the end of the world, the
resurrection, eternal bliss and hell. He finished it on
July 15, 1719. It consists of three hundred seventeen
pages. We found a copy of it in his neat handwriting at
Mar Awgayn Monastery. 165

2. The Chariot of Mysteries, eight treatises, on the
intellect, an interpretation of the cherubim chariot
which Ezekiel saw, the creation of the world, angels,
devils and Adam and the benefit we gained from the
Incarnation of Christ, resurrection, the kingdom of
heaven and hell. 166

3. Silah al-Din wa Turs al-Yaqin ( The Armor of Religion
and the Shield of Conviction) , in sixteen parts, on the Holy
Trinity, Incarnation, that faith cannot be obtained
through knowledge, a refutation of purgatory, a refuta-
tion of those who maintain that punishment and reward
apply only to the soul and not the body, on repentance
and on leavened bread for Communion. This book
contains some weak and refutable ideas. 167

4. Discourses or homilies on the interpretation of the
wings of the Seraphim, the talents, the last farthing, the
Lord’s prayers, as well as a refutation of purgatory and
the end of the world. These discourses consist of one
hundred eighty pages. 168

5. An anthology containing many odes in the three
meters (the five, seven and twelve syllabic meters) most
of which are of excellent quality with only some of
mediocre quality. Of these we found more than one
hundred fifteen odes, the most famous of which is his
lengthy ode beginning thus: “Lord who through His
Son created the world from nothing.” 169 The second
famous ode is a rhymed one beginning thus: “The
Father is light, the Son is light and the Spirit is light” 170
The anthology also contains fine and pleasant pieces 171
and a metrical discourse on repentance in the melody
of “Qum Faulos” (“Rise up, O Paul”). 172

6. An abridgement of Bar Bahlul’s lexicon, made in
1724. 175

7. Thirty-six homilies written in poor and ungram-
matical Arabic. 174 Nevertheless, some of his contempo-
raries translated his first two books. 175

283. The Chorepiscopus Abd Yeshu of Qusur (1750)

Abd Yeshu is son of Nimat Allah. He was born at the

village Qusur and studied the Syriac language and
mastered its calligraphy. In 1 718 he was ordained a
priest for Diyarbakr and a chorepiscopus in 1738. He
died after 1751. He composed six rhymed odes in the
heptasyllabic meter in praise of some dignitaries of his
time. In the first ode, which he composed in 1713 while
still a deacon, he praised the achievements of the
Patriarch Jurjis II. 176 In another ode he eulogized the
two martyrs Maphrian Shimun and Metropolitan Rizq
Allah. 177 His verse is good but involved in some parts.

284. The Monk Abd al-Nur of Amid (d. 1755)

Monk Abd al-Nur, son of Nimat Allah of Amid,

became a monk at Mar Malke’s Monastery in Tur Abdin
in 1700. After his ordination as a priest he traveled the
countries, reaching Rome and Paris. He returned from
his trip and resided at the Zafaran Monastery and for
sometime atMarYaqub (Jacob) Monastery (from 1722
till his death in 1755). He had a good knowledge of
Syriac and a mediocre knowledge of Arabic. He trans-
lated into Arabic Bar Salibi’s scholia on the Gospel, and
the book entided The Cause of all Causes and Bar Kifa’s
A Commentary on the Mysteries, The Ranks of Angels and On
Paradise. 1 ™ His translation is pardy good and partly
poor. But the handwriting in which he transcribed
many manuscripts is good. 179

285. The Maphrian Shukr Allah of Aleppo (d. 1764)

Maphrian Shukr Allah is son of the Deacon Musa al-

Qasabji. He was born at Aleppo in which he also studied
Syriac, becoming proficient in it and in Arabic, though
not excelling in it. He also studied religious sciences,

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

became a monk and later was ordained a priest. He was
consecrated a maphrian for Malabar in India in 1748
under the name Basilius. He died in Malabar in 1764.
He was of commendable deeds and character. His
general knowledge was extensive. In 1751 he wrote his
Journey to Malabar in Syriac, consisting of eleven pages,
which we have published. 180 He also wrote in Arabic a
good book on the catechism. 181

286. The Chorepiscopus Yaqub (Jacob) of Qutrubul
(d. 1783)

The Chorepiscopus Yaqub is son of the Deacon
Tuma (Thomas) known as Ibn al-Khawaja. He was bom
at Qutrubul, a village of Amid. He studied Syriac under
masters of his time and mastered its fundamentals and
literature. He was ordained a deacon and later an
archdeacon. About 1771 he was ordained a priest and
eight years later he became a chorepiscopus. He died in
1783. In 1764 he wrote a book on Syriac etymology,
entitled The Rose of Leamingft consists of three hundred
seventy-eight large size pages, divided into twenty-three
parts, which in turn are subdivided into one hundred
sixty-three chapters. It was studied by both students and
teachers. Its original copy in his own handwriting is at
Diyarbakr. 182 From it he abridged a book on conjuga-
tion. 185 Furthermore, he composed three fine rhymed
odes, one of them in the heptasyllabic meter on the
Trinity and the unity of God, arranged according to the
alphabet The second covered five pages on divine
wisdom in the dodecasyllabic meter. It contains some
good verse, and is appended to the book of his work. 184
The third consists of eighteen lines in which he laments
the decline of learning among the later Syrians. 185 In
1 766 he composed the obligatory prayer and five husoyos
for the festival of Mar Malke, written in his very beautiful
handwriting. They are extantatthe Church ofDiyarbakr.
His composition is efficient but it is marred by complex-
ity and his frequent use of Greek terms, which appear
incongruous.

287. Metropolitan Yaqub Mirijan (d. 1804)

Metropolitan Yaqub Mirijan was bom at the village

Amas. He became a monk in a monastery in his native
country and was ordained a priest. About 1 778, he was
ordained a bishop and headed the diocese of Midyat.
He died in 1804. 1 have read eleven odes composed by
him in the three meters (the five, seven and
dodecasyllabic meters) on repentance, on the vicissi-
tudes of his time and on the two righteous men Job and
Joseph. These odes are pardy good and pardy poor. 186

288. Bishop Yuhanna aFBustani of Manimim (d.
1825)

Bishop Yuhanna is son of the priest Abd Allah,
known as Ibn al-Bustani. He was born at Manimim and
studied under masters in his native country and was
ordained a priest. After he became a widower he was

ordained a bishop in 1783 under the name Severus. For
a time he resided at the villages of Arbo and later Hbab
which became his diocese. He was a pious. God-fearing
man who loved the poor. He died after August 11,1 825.
He composed four odes consisting of forty-five pages,
two of them in the hepta-syllabic meter. One of them,
which he composed while still young, is on repentance.
It is arranged according to the alphabet, six lines for
each letter. He also commented on it. 187 The second
ode is in the form of a dialogue between wisdom and the
composer. 188 The other two odes are in the dodecasyllabic
meter. One of them, his best, is a lengthy but fine ode
on divine wisdom. He called it The Cream of Wisdom. It
begins thus, “Delightful sun which has illuminated our
land by its light.” 189 The other one which he composed
in his youth is on repentance. It contains marginal notes
explaining the strange terms in it. 190 He also composed
a piece on the conflictbetween the soul and the body. 191
His verse is generally good and only slightly poor.

289. Bishop Gurgis of Azekh (d. 1847)

Bishop Gurgis was a priest of the church of Azekh in
1832. After he became a widower he became a monk at
the Zafaran Monastery. In 1842 he was ordained a
bishop for Azekh under the name Cyril, to assist his
brother Yeshu, metropolitan of the Jazira. Five years
later he was treacherously and perfidiously murdered
by the governor of thejazira, Badr Khan Beg the Bakhti.
He, may God have mercy on him, was a virtuous man.
With his knowledge of Syriac, he composed an ode in
the heptasyllabic meter on the invasion of Muhammad
Pasha of Rowanduz of his country. 192 It is also reported
that he composed two lines of verse describing the water
pipe.

290. Metropolitan Zaytun of Inhil (d. 1855)

Metropolitan Zaytun was bom at the village Inhil in

Tur Abdin. He studied under teachers of his time,
particularly the Metropolitan Abd al-Nur of Arbo. He
also acquired a fair knowledge of literature, church
rituals and calligraphy. He became a monk and was
ordained a priest at the Qartamin Monastery. In 1848
he was ordained a metropolitan under the name
Philoxenus and in 1851 he headed the diocese of
Midyat. He died, a middle-aged man, in April 1855. He
was a pious and venerable person . While still a monk, he
composed an excellent ode comprising one hundred
twenty-two lines in the dodecasyllabic meter praising
the virtues of Saint Gabriel of Qartamin. 195 While in
Paris, I read an ode on Saint Philoxenus of Mabug.
Although some of its lines are poor, I think it is the
composition of our Metropolitan Zaytun. 194

291. The Chorepiscopus Matta (Matthew) Konat (d.
1927)

Corepiscopus Konat was born at Pampakoda in
Malabar, India in 1860. He studied the Syriac language

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and religious sciences under some of his relatives. In
1883 he was ordained a priest and began teaching at the
seminary in Kotaym. Then he established and operated
a small seminary in his own village, from which a group
of priests graduated. In 1926 he became a chorepiscopus
and died in 1927.

Chorepiscopus Konat wrote a book on church festivi-
ties and letters. He translated from Syriac into Malyalim,
chapters from Bar Salibi’s Scholia on the Gospel accord-
ing to St. Matthew, the Nomocanon by Bar Hebraeus, the
New Testament (except Revelation) which was published
in 1936, and a selection of church rituals and hymns.
Furthermore, he published the Ishhim ( Regular Weekday
Service Book of Prayers) some anaphoras, the service of
deacons, the orders of baptism, marriage, and funerals
as well as the service book for principal feasts and the
service book for the Week of the Passion.

292. Deacon Naum Faiq (d. 1930)

Deacon Naum is son of Elias Palakh. He was born at
Diyarbakr in 1868, where he studied and mastered the
Syriac language, of which he became greatly fond. He
also mastered the Turkish language. In 1889 he was
ordained a deacon and for twentyyears He taught in the
school at Diyarbakr. In 1912 he immigrated to the

United States an d resided at WestNew York, N ewj ersey.
He died on February5, 1930. We have read twenty lines
of verse of his which are a translation of some of the
Rubaiyyat {Quatrains) of Umar-i-Khayyam into Syriac. 195
He also composed rhymed song in the heptasyllabic
meter on Beth Nahrin. He also compiled some Arabic
and Turkish anthologies.

293. The Priest Yaqub (Jacob) Saka (d. 1931)

Priest Yaqub is son of Butrus (Peter), son of the
Deacon Saka (Isaac). He was born at Bartulli in 1864
and studied under some of his contemporaries, espe-
cially the Chaldean Chorepiscopus Butrus of Karmlays.
He became well-versed in etymology. He was ordained
a deacon in 1906 and taught at the school of his village
as well as at the school of St. Matthew’s monastery. He
became a priest in 1929 and died on April, 1931.

He was proficient in composing poetry and his early
poems show the influence of old poets. However, his
themes were restricted to friendship, congratulations,
praise and eulogies. He also wrote an ode on divine
wisdom. His verse would have been more pleasant if he
had not adhered tenaciously to using rhyme. He com-
posed an anthology comprising two hundred pages.
This anthology survives in two copies. 196

171

Epilogue in Five Parts

Parti

On Orientalists and Oriental Writers who
Published Syriac Books

The first European who served our Syriac language
and who had a knowledge of it is the Minister John
Albertus Biedmanstadios the Austrian, through whose
effort Ferdinand I, Emperor of Rome, Germany, Hun-
gary and Bohemia (1555-1564) offered a handsome
sum of money to the Syrian Metropolitan Musa (Moses)
al-Sawari to publish the New Testament in 1555.

The first Orientalist learned man who studied it is, we
think, Andreas Masius (d. 1573) who translated The Book
ofParadiseby Moses bar Kifa into Latin and published
it in 1569. But the first Orientalist who recognized its
excellence and treasurers is the French priest Eusebe
Renaudot (1646-1721), who translated thirty-seven litur-
gies into French and published them in 1716. 1

In 1719-1728 the Maronite Metropolitan YusufSiman
al-Simani (Joseph Assemani) wrote in Latin and pub-
lished in Rome his famous work entitled Bibliothica
Orienlalis in four volumes. He has incorporated into it
biographies of Syrian learned men regardless of their
denomination and also included detailed Syriac and
Arabic texts. Thus he stimulated and directed scholars
to the place of these men in learning. But if he had kept
his pen from extreme doctrinal criticism which reached
the point of defamation, it would have been more
commendable and appropriate to a man of his scholarly
stature. Assemani’s work has been abridged, edited and
published by Gustav Bickell in 1871. The French priest
Jean Chabot stated:

After contemplating the Syriac manuscripts
which Renaudot had prepared for publica-
tion but were not published and remained in
their original state at the Biblioteque
Nationale in Paris, we come to the conclusion
that Renaudot was more learned and well
versed in Syriac studies than Assemani who
died in 1768. 2

A group of European learned men devoted their
effort to the study of Syriac. They published what they
desired of the writings of its learned men and translated
them into Latin, French, German, English and Italian.
Only two books were translated into Russian. Most of
these writings were published in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. These Orientalists represent dif-
ferent nationalities. Some of them translated many
manuscripts, while others translated only a very few. We
counted eleven Eastern writers who have also published
or translated Syriac manuscripts.

Part II

On The Incoherence of Some Orientalists and
Their False Charges Against Our Learned Men
and Their Refutation

Although we recognize the excellence of Orientalists,
their industry, effort and adroitness in studying our
Syriac sciences and literature as well as the manuscripts
which they edited or translated into their living lan-
guages, we find it imperative to allude to the incoher-
ence of some of them and their false charges against our
learned men or against historical facts connected with
our dear country. They were motivated either by pride
in their learning and skill, or vanity, or for extremism in
their modern principles and their attempt to subjugate
the learned men of ancient times to modem criteria, an
unfair practice. Or, they do so for negligence in inves-
tigations or even still out of great prejudice toward the
Orthodox Syrians. As learned men, they should avoid
such prejudice. Following are some examples:

1. William Wright, the Englishman, claimed that:
the literature of Syria is, on the whole, not an
attractive one. As Renan (the French atheist
and free thinker) said, ‘The Syrians shone
neither in war, nor in the arts, nor in science.’
There was no al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, nor Ibn
Rushd, in the cloisters of Edessa, Ken-neshre,
orNisibis. The Syrian church never produced
men who rose to the level of a Eusebius, a
GregoryNazianzen.aBasil and a Chrysostom,
and that their historians John of Ephesus,

Tall Mahre and Bar Hebraeus are humble
chroniclers. 1

We refute this allegation by stating that when the
Syrians became Christians they did not have a kingdom
to defend and for which they would write select speeches
or compose fiery poems. If by art Wright and Renan
meant architecture, our surviving ancient churches
stand as a testimony for the Syrians’ skill in architecture.
Of course, Renan and Wright have not seen the monasr

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

teries of Qartamin, Salh, Mar Bahnam and the churches
of Hah, Amas and Kafarze, particularly the two churches
of Edessa considered by the geographers and historians
as two of the wonders of the World. 2 They did not see the
churches in Baghdad which were adorned with wonder-
ful pictures and ornaments and which became the
attractions of visitors from far-away countries. 3 Neither
did they see the Monastery of Mar Barsoum in Malatya
(Melitene) for whose building and decoration the patri-
archs, especially Michael the Great, spentagreat deal of
effort. 4 And could these two men realize the condition
of the twenty thousand of our churches which survived
until 1236 or his (Mar Barsoum) Church in Sis voluntar-
ily built by the Edessene physician Isa about 1244 5 let
alone the churches we had in our golden age? 6 And if
they meant by art the mastery of pictorial art, they failed
to know about the precious gold and silver objects and
the magnificent embroidered vestments described by
the priest Aaron of Arzenjan about 1364 and which is
only a small part of that great legacy. How could they
forget the splendid ornaments and pictures which en-
hanced the value of the copies of our Gospels? Or how
could they overlook the calligraphy of our manuscript
which they saw and which have achieved a universal
record in perfection and beauty? If they mean by art,
sculpture in which the Romans and the Italians alone
have excelled, then, the Syrians as well as other nations
such as the English and the French, are to blame for not
taking it up.

Wright’s claim that our histories are of little sub-
stance and benefit is refuted by the consensus of the
Orientalists who studied and published these histories
and stated that their writers have preceded the Chris-
tian historians of ancient and medieval times, and that
they are most comprehensive and beneficial for the
historian. These histories, consisting of no fewer than
seventeen volumes, have added new chapters to world
history and corrected old mistakes. 7 Indeed, Wright
himself has not read the histories of Michael the Great
and the anonymous Edessene. Even the writer to whom
he attributed the history of Tall Mahre was written by a
monk from the Zuqnin Monastery. 8 And if this is what
Wright thinks of our histories, why does he regret the
loss of the histories of Jacob of Edessa and Moses bar
Kifa? Furthermore, could he show us what histories are
better and more comprehensive than ours? Have
European historians of various nationalities written
before later times? Is there anything found in their
histories until the Crusades except insignificant sub-
ject matter?

Wright’s claim that our Church did not produce the
likes of Eusebius and other writers whom he mentioned
is to be refuted by the opinions of authoritative critics.
These critics said thatalthough Eusebius’s fame derives
from his history, yet he was neither a great historian nor
a genius; he was a proficient and thorough compiler.
His history, they say, is weak and his style is aesthetically

poor. 9 Furthermore, we recognize that Gregory
Nazianzen derives his fame from his charming dis-
courses and wonderful poetry. And Basilius is famous
because of his theological writings, letters and dis-
courses of skillful composition. Although these two
writers have excellence reserved to geniuses alone, yet
they were not the only ones in the world whom no one
could emulate. Indeed, the writings of Ephraim, Jacob
of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, Jacob of Edessa, Moses
bar Kifa and Bar Hebraeus, not only equal their writings
but even surpass them except for the writings of
Chrysostom, the prince of orators in Christendom. I do
not know whether Wright had the chance to read the
superb homilies of Ephraim in order to see whether
they would fascinate him. We do not want to argue with
him over the writings of Severus of Antioch in Greek
although they reached the world in our tongue (Syriac)
and astonished eminent speculative thinkers. Regard-
ing philosophy, how could Wright designate the excel-
lence of Sergius of Ras Ayn and the philosophers of the
Monastery of Qinnesrin like Severus Sabukht, Jacob of
Edessa and George, bishop of the Arabs, to whose
thorough commentaries Renan himself has directed
the attention of writers, 10 let alone Bar Hebraeus whose
book, The Cream of Wisdom, Wright did not see because
no copy of it was available in all the European libraries
at that time.

On the other hand, it was not easy for the Syrians in
the fourth century to get to the schools of Caesarea,
Cappadocia, Alexandria and Athens. But when the
circumstances were more propitious, from the end of
the sixth to the end of the ninth centuries, duringwhich
they built great monasteries and exhausted their efforts
for the attainment of philosophy, the masterpieces of
Greek learned men became available to them. They
studied them and were even sought for their profi-
ciency in philosophy. How could Wright then deny
their genius? Finally, if we did not have the like of the
eminent learned men whom he men tioned, did the rest
of the Christian nation have men like them? It is proved
that the opponent who did not thoroughly study the
writings of our people has produced only a feeble and
unsuccessful opinion which is rejected by European
historians themselves.

2. You have already seen what we have related about
Chabot’s opinions. 11 While Chabot denied the creativ-
ity of Bar Hebraeus 12 we find that he himself has become
a slave of uncreativity by imitating those writers who
preceded him, like Duval. However, Baumstark and
Sprengling hold a different opinion of Bar Hebraeus.
Part of Chabot’s incoherence is his claim that Syrian
poets after the ninth century became greatly absorbed
in using strange and ornamental usages in their lan-
guage to vie with the Arabic language. This, he main-
tains, spoiled their poetry, which thus lost charm and
lofty thinking. 15 This opinion does not apply to the
Western Syrians with the exception of Jacob of Bartulli

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and except for the composers of verse in the middle of
the fifteenth century as we have previously stated. 15
Prior to Jacob of Bartulli our verse composers excelled
in composing most beautiful poems. What led Chabot
to this erroneous impression is his unawareness of the
odes of Bar Qiqi, Bar Sabuni, and his overlooking of the
odes of Timothy of Karkar, Bar Andrew and Abu Nasr of
Bartulli and others. One of his arbitrary opinions is his
doubt about the discourses of Moses bar Kifa although
they were preserved in a manuscript available in his
time. As a learned man, it would have been more
appropriate for him to avoid sectarian backbiting, 16
ingratitude, 17 and the slightest mistakes. 18

3. Most of the Orientalists including Anton
Baumstark, the German, claim that the story of the
martyr Bahnam is fictitious. They even denied the
existence of some saints or their stories. Their pretext is
that no manuscripts about them have survived. This is
the utmost arbitrariness since these Orientalists have
become certain of the loss of many manuscripts. Fur-
thermore, ecclesiastical histories no matter how de-
tailed, were not able to include the biographies of the
multitudes of the select men of God in the far-flung
countries of the East The just critic should not expect
the biographers of these saints to be proficient in the
science of criticism, for he who attempts such a thing is
in fact seeking the impossible. And how many a histori-
cal event was doubted by some of them, but later was
proved to be authentic by a newly discovered old manu-
script which forces the Orientalist to affirm its authen-
ticity. If for some selfish purpose or lack of subject
matter or inadequate learning a writer or a parasitical
scribe interpolated a story which does not correspond
with the true condition or time of its central figure, it
should not be used as a pretext to deny the whole story.
For it should not be difficult for the prudent and
intelligent writer to sift out the interpolations made by
ignorantwriters or scribes and realize that what remains
of the original should be invulnerable. Moreover, the
science of criticism is not the invention of contempo-
rary European writers nor it is completely theirs. If you
resort to some of the letters of Jacob of Edessa and
George, bishop of the Arabs, you will find in them
scientific criticism and thorough examination of an-
cient events since the beginning of Christianity. We do
not boast if we stated that four years after comprehen-
sive study of our language, we obviously realized many
historical facts in the manuscripts which we had read
before the Orientalists produced their opinions about
them.

4. Part of the incoherence of the French priest
Francois Nau is that he thought that John of Ephesus
exaggerated his praise of the heroism of the captives
and martyr virgins who preferred to drown in the river
Khabur than fall into the hands of the infidel Magi, for
adherence to their religion and for the protection of
their virginity, both of which deserve to be protected by

precious life. Nau has falsely and shamelessly described
the writer (John of Ephesus) as a “semi-savage monk,” 19
claiming that he has exalted suicide. But Nau has
blindly overlooked Basilius and St.John Chrysostom’s
exaltation of the martyrs of religion and virginity
Proedeci and Domnina of Antioch and their daughters.
Is it not proper for John of Ephesus to have found an
example in the martyrdom of these women?

5. Henri Pognon has unjustly accused Michael the
Great of prattle and lack of understanding. 20 Indeed, it
is a silly accusation, demonstrating the arrogance and
error of the writer. Elaboration in the writing of history
is commendable and is not considered prattling except
by a raving chatterbox. The history of Michael the
Great, for whose publication learned men have vied and
for whose printing the Art University of Paris spent a
subs tan tial amount of money, is a rare treasure not to be
denigrated by the few events copied by the author from
weak sources and from which other histories are not
free. No one can criticize this history whose author is an
eminent church dignitary, unless he is of little under-
standing. ButPognon, in his shortsightedness, has imag-
ined that there was a discrepancy in Michael’s list of
bishops. His pretext is that the author has neglected to
mention eight ou t of twen ty-eight bishops who attended
his consecration as patriarch in 1166. In fact, four of
these bishops were ordained by maphrians of the East
and the rest are not known. These four bishops are
Basil, John, Ignatius and Iyawannis, bishops of Edessa,
Mar Gabriel’s Monastery, Albira and Baremmana, re-
spectively. 21 His claim is refuted by the fact that Basil is
bar Shumanna, bishop of Kesum, who was transferred
to Edessa, and the fact that Yuhanna (John) is the
bishop ofTur Abdin mentioned in the Basibrina Book of
Lifebyhis nephew Gabriel, Pognon should have called
him the bishop of Qartamin. Furthermore, Ignatius is
bishop of Tall Arsanius, which then included the adja-
centdiocese ofAlbira, Iyawannis was bishop ofSibaberk
and was ordained in 1135. After his diocese was an-
nexed to that of Edessa in 11 55, 22 he was given the
diocese of Baremmana. All of these bishops were listed
as the bishop under the Patriarchs Yuhanna XI and
Athanasius VII. Moreover, we have collated the list of
bishops with the copy at Cambridge and with our
comments which we derived from the oldest manu-
scripts and did not add to it except for five bishops. And
what is this number in comparison with nine hundred-
fifty bishops? This is sufficient to prove the falsehood of
Pognon’s assertions. What makes him look even more
deficient in the science of history is his claim:

1) thatMarGabriel’sMonasterywas called the “Umar”
Monastery because its abbot obtained a decree from the
Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, authorizing him to be in
charge of the Christians in that country. 23 In fact, the
Caliph Umar did not travel beyond Damascus, Gabriel
did not leave Tur Abdin, and these two men did not
meet at all. Moreover, the right word is Umr, meaning a

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

monastery in both Arabic and Syriac, and not Umar.

2) Pognon claimed that the Monastery of the Pillar,
renovated by Musa ibn Hamdan in 1 257, is at al-Raqqa,
that the village of Dirah Iliyya is the village of Inhil in
Tur Abdin and that the Maphrian Dioscorus is an
Arab.* 4 The truth is that the monastery is that of St.
Michael in Mardin, that the village Dirah Iliyya is very
near to that city and that Maphrian Dioscorus belongs
to the village Arbo in Tur Abdin.

3) A copy of the Book of LifeicW into Pognon’s hand,
but he could not know its name. However, he drew from
it an historical event about the pillage of Mar Gabriel’s
Monastery by the Turks or the Persians in 1 1 00. But he
became suspicious about this incident because Ibn al-
Athir did not mention it 25 As if Ibn al-Athir covered in
his history everything that befell the Blast particularly
the affairs of the Christians and their monasteries.
When were Muslim historians concerned about the
affairs of the Christians? 26

6. Some Orientalists like the French Rubens Duval in
his book La Histoire d’Edessa and Jerome Labourt in his
book Le christianisme dans I’empire Perse sous la dynasti
Sassanids, have been criticized for denying the
Christianization of the city of Edessa before the fourth
century. Apparently, they found in the Doctrine of Addai
interpolations made by some scribes which made them
quick to deny the truth about the conversion of Edessa
to Christianity. Labourt has even maliciously denigrated
the historical integrity of Bar Hebraeus while he has
fearlessly declared his bias against the opponents of his
own doctrine. 27

7. At the beginning the Orientalists made many
mistakes. For example, they confused Isaac with Balai,
and considered Daniel ofSalhan eighth-century learned
man and David bar Bulus (Paul) a thirteenth-century
writer, and incorrectly determined their affairs and
dates. Most of them imitated Assemani even in his harsh
defamation of our learned men. 28 Furthermore, the
priestjabrail (Gabriel) Qirdahi, who in his Liber Thesau-
rus provided hodgepodge biographies which he fabri-
cated and garnished in his younger days, did not even
think of correcting his mistakes later. 29 Baumstark’s
misunderstanding of the term Siluba has already been
mentioned. 50 In fact, Siluba was a term used by Western
Syrian writers, but it was neglected later. 51 Like
Baumstark, Mingana made this same mistake. 52 He also
misunderstood the meaning of the term Notar taro,
meaning the head of a diocese, a term which has been
used in this context by our later transcribers. But
Baumstark translated it as the doorkeeper , 55 Some
Orientalists maintained that the term Tubana which
occurred in the Lives of the Eastern Ascetics means
“Tubawi” that is blessed, while in reality Tubana means
ascetic, the same as Turaya which occurred in the poems
of St Ephraim. There it means an ascetic and not moun-

tain man, because many ascetics lived in cells in the
mountains.

It should also be remembered that some Orientalists
cannot read two pages of Syriac let alone write it, as we
have found out ourselves. They do study it in a mechani-
cal manner and with great patience and for this reason
their translations could not be free from incongruous
terms which disagree with the original. 54 It is obvious
that the acquisition of the right meaning and the savor-
ing of it are not afforded except to the natives and
foreigners who are well-versed in the language. It is not
afforded to those who carry dictionaries under their
arms which they consult in order to obtain the right
meaning while they are not sure of what is wrong and
what is right. We have notmentioned this to magnify the
mistakes of Orientalists but to show that they do have
weaknesses. Therefore, they have no right to be dog-
matic on everything that comes to their mind, wrongly
imagining that they are infallible. Ids true that delibera-
tion and moderation is the principle of scholars who
possess independent judgment.

What is appropriate to mention here is that some
contemporary European writers 55 attempted in their
historical or religious writings to gain fame by defaming
eminent (Syrian) writers. They are motivated by preju-
dice and vindictiveness against these Syrian learned
men whose only fault is that they are not of their own
theological doctrine. But they praise their contempo-
rary European opponents, either out of flattery or out
of fear of their adverse reaction. This is sheer hypocrisy.
After all, what is the use of knowledge if it does not
refine man to the point where he would refrain from
profaning that which is sacred to other people. Above
all they claim that they belong to an age which has
achieved a great degree of refinement and civilization.
Yet how ill their deeds and how false their words. B'or
every just person of good taste knows that dignitaries
and learned men, particularly the proficient among
them, have an esteemed position for their virtue and for
their role in enlightening the path for other people.
Without these learned men we would, in many respects,
be in complete darkness. On the other hand, we found
a group of Orientalists who are moderate, like Brooks,
Hayes, Sprengling, Graham and Mingana (at the end of
his life) and Gustave Bardy.

May God have compassion on those who tell the truth
and benefitpeople with their knowledge, usingauthentic
evidence to support their views. This is more appropriate
for them, more efficient in preventing shortcomings and
achieving one’s goal. May God enlighten us to acquire
beneficial religious and secular knowledge. We pray Him
to keep us away from faults and errors, and to guide the
thoughtless and the irresponsible to the right path. He is
defending enough for us. We render Him deep gratitude
as we finish this treatise.

176

The Eighth Century

Section in

A Table of Famous
Calligraphers

The Fifth Century

Jacob in the city of Edessa 411

Samuel the ascetic*

Jonathan the ascetic* (*Both of these were

at the Monastery of the Edessenes in Amid.

Both became abbots of the Monastery of John
the Orti in the first quarter of the fifth century).

Deacon Isaac of Edessa 462

Deacon John 464

The Sixth Century

The monk Jacob of Amid, in the Monastery of Fanur 509

Cosmas the abbot 522

The monk John, from the vicinity of Antioch, 535

in the Monastery of St. Eusib in Kafr al-Bira
Barlaha the Edessene, residing in Sirmin 552

The priest of Bishop John of Edessa 564-594

Deacon Tuma (Thomas) of the Gubba Baraya

(“Outer Pit”) Monastery 584

The Seventh Century

The priest Sergius

Joseph of Dara.

603

The monk Severus, scribe of the village of

Dayr Kawkab Hina

611

Theodorus, the Edessene scribe

683

St. Marutha, maphrian of Takrit

d. 649

The priest Saijuna, solitary of St. Eupros

688

Monastery* (*This monastery is probably the
one built at the gate of Antioch in the middle
of the fourth century).

Jacob, the scribe of Mardin 692

Lazarus

Deacon David, son of the priest Denha of Arzun

John the ascetic

720

The deacon Saba, scribe of Ras Ayn

726

John of Qasitra Orim

736

The priest Anstasius of Amid
Comita

789

The Ninth Century

The deacon Ibrahim of Beth Surya

ca. 800

The deacon George

804

Brother Charkhi

820

The monk Theodosius, from the Pillar Monastery

806

The priest Theodosius

801-830

Theodorus

823

Harun Jazri of Dara

823

The deacon Addai of Amid

827

The priest Dioscorus

Arabi, metropolitan of Samosata, from

837

the Qarqafta Monastery
The monk Ephraim, stylite ascetic

839

in the province of Kafrtut near Zughma
The monk Habib, the abbot of St. Quris,

845

a monastery in the East established in the
sixth century

The monk Severus, from St. Barbara Monastery

in the mountain of Edessa

861

The priest Jacob of Balad

862

Severus of Manimim
The monk-priest Job of Manimim
The monk-priest Ayyar of Manimim
The monks Simon, Yeshu, and Aish

855-884

(These three monks are calligrapher-
artists from the Kafrtina Monastery
outside Harran).

Daniel Kundayraybi, the chief scribe of Tur Abdin

The monk Simon from the Monastery

of Solomon of Duluk

875

The monk-priest Jacob, son of Jonathan of Narsibad 877

Basim

The monk John

The Tenth Century

The priest Hasan Tuma (Thomas)

913

The priest Stephen Malta, from Qaryatayn
The deacon-monk David, from the village of

932

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Orin in Jiran province

980

John

The monk Gabriel, secretary of Patriarch

ca.990

Athanasius IV

994-999

The skillful artist. Deacon Joseph of Melitene

997

John of Basibrina, metropolitan of Qartamin

998-1043

The monk-priest John Said Killizi
The monk Romanus, pupil of Patriarch

1000

Athanasius IV

1000

Ibrahim Furati, from the Sarjisiyya Monastery
The Eleventh Century

1000

Matta John of Takrit

The monk Tuma Joseph Madawwi

1002

The monk Yeshu Andreas, from Hisn Ziyad
The monk-priest Qasyan, from the Monastery

1007

of Ibn Jaji

1014

The monk-deacon Emmanuel of Basibrina,
chief scribe of Tur Abdin, from the
Qartamin Monastery

1041

The monk-priest Peter*

The monk Yaish the artist* (* brothers of

the monk-deacon Emmanuel).

The monk Saliba, from the Cross Monastery

1015

Deacon Ibrahim

The priest Jacob

Deacon Peter, son of the priest Gabriel,

1024

the martyr of Melitene

1055-1058

John bar Shushan, patriarch of Antioch
Deacon John, son of the priest Modyana

1058-1072

of Melitene, from Ibn Jaji Monastery

1061

Phelixene, metropolitan of Sijistan

1068

Constantine

Athanasius Barsoum the scribe, grandson

of Jesse, metropolitan of Edessa

The Twelfth Century
The ascetic priest Samuel Cyriacus in the

1075-1100

Scete desert

1102

The monk Ibrahim, son of Paul Qazazi
The monk-priest Kasrun of Edessa,

1116

living in Maragha

1127-1139

Lazarus Saba of Basibrina

1133

Ignatius Romanus of Melitene, metropolitan
of Jerusalem, from the Monastery of the
Magdalene

1138-1183

The priest Yeshu Abd al-Masih of Edessa, 1 144

from the Monastery of the Magdalene

Dionysius Jacob bar Salibi 1148-1171

Ignatius Sahdo of Edessa, metropolitan of 1 149-1207
Jerusalem

Barsoum

Basilius Faris the Edessene, metropolitan 1 164-1204

of Edessa

The monk-priest Yeshu from St. Ibrahim 1 165

Monastery in Midyat, who may be Yeshu
the scribe, metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad
Michael the Great, patriarch of Antioch 1 166-1199

Deacon Karim Hushab, son of Wahab of Bartulli, 1 168
at Sl Thomas Church in Mosul
The monk-priest Abd al-Masih , from the 1169

Monastery of St. George in Mardin

Habib of Habsnas 1170

The priest Said Shamli of Hisn Ziyad 1171

The monk Isaiah of Beth Khudayda, from 1173

St. Matthew Monastery, and then from the
Magdalene Monastery

The priest Barsoum, living in Hisn Ziyad 1173

The monk-priest Abu al-Faraj ibn Ibrahim 1 174-1206
ibn Abi Said of Amid, secretary of
Michael the Great

The monk Basil, son of Said Maqdisi of Edessa, 1174

from al-Barid Monastery

Bishop John David of Amid 1174-1203

Deacon Barsoum of Beth Khudayda 1175

The monk Aaron, son of Sabrun, from the 1177

village of Kafryab

The monk Iyawannis Yeshu, son of the priest 1177-1210
Romanus from Tall Arsanius, metropolitan
of Raban

The priest Daniel, son of Joseph of Basekhra 1177-1223
The monk-priest Simon of Hah, from the 1182-1205
Qartamin Monastery

The monk Abu Tahir of Mosul, from the 1188

Monastery of St. Sarjis in the Barren Mountain

The monk-priest Yeshu Kiso, from the 1188

Monastery of Jacob, the Doctor of the Church
Patriarch John XII, formerly Yeshu the scribe 1191-1220
Simon Badbi 1194

The monk-priest Simon Aish Mudawwi, 1194

from the Qartamin Monastery
The monk Bahnam, pupil of John, metropolitan 1 194
of Beth Arbaya or Baarbaya

The monk Yeshu of Bartulli 1196

Yeshu of Midyat

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

The monk-priest Stephen from the Qartamin Monastery
ca. 1200

Deacon Zura of Bartulli 1 200

The Thirteenth Century

The monk-priest Peter, son of Deacon 1 20 1

Abu al-Faraj, of the Saba family of Basibrina
The priest Emmanuel, brother of Peter 1 202

The monk Theodoras of Sath 1203

The monk-priest Zebina of Shalabdin 1208- 1227

The monk-priest, son of Ibrahim of Arbo, 1210

from St Sharbil Monastery at Kafr Shamikh
Deacon Denha Maraf, living in Sijistan 1210

The subdeacon Ibrahim of Harran, from 1210

the Monastery of St. Jacob Nawawis in the
Edessa Mountain

The priest Ibrahim, son of priest 1210

Joseph Bagdashi, from the Monastery of St.

Demete in Tibyatha

The monk Masud Yalda Mawhub 1212

The monk Bacchus Tawwaf (“Wanderer”) 1213-1257
of Beth Khudayda, in the Monastery of
Ascetics in Edessa, and later at the Scete

The monk Simon Shulum of Arbo, from 1214

St. Malke Monastery

Dionysius Saliba of Kafrsalt, maphrian 1215-1231

of the East

The monk-priest David Saliba of Hah, from 1217

the Monastery of the Cross

The deacon scribe Basil, son of priest 12 1 8-1224

John of Melitene

The deacon or master Simon of Kafrsalt, from 1218

the Monastery of St. Sharbil in Kafrshami

The monk Mubarak David of Bartulli, from 1220-1239
St. Matthew Monastery

Master Bahnam, known as Abu al-Hasan, 1222-1254
son of priest Joseph ibn Abi a]-Faraj
of Sijistan

Master Simon, from the Monastery of Jacob, 1223

the Doctor of the Church, in the
Mountain of Edessa

Dioscorus Theodoras, son of Priest 1 224- 1 27 3

Michael, son of Basil, metropolitan of
Hisn Ziyad

The monk Sahdo Tuma of Tur Abdin, from 1227-1241
the Salh Monastery

Deacon Barsoum John, the scribe and 1229

periodeutes of the church of Melitene

The monk David Halim, from the Monastery 1230

of St. Daniel Jalshi

Deacon Daniel of Duluk 1234

Isaac, from the Qatra Monastery 1235

Gurgis (George) the monk 1242

Jacob, son of Maqdisi Sulayman (Solomon), 1245

from the village of Talqbab near Mardin

The priest Simon John of Bartulli, minister 1246-1280
of the church of the Takritians in Mosul
The monk Mansur of Bajbara, from Muallaq 1248

Monastery in the Barren Mountain
The monk Jacob, son of priest John Zabdiqi 1250

The monk Aziz, from St. Matthew Monastery 1264

The priest Joseph Khamis of Sinjar, from the 1269

Forty Martyrs Monastery in Bartulli
The priest Barsoum 1269

Deacon John Sara of Bartulli 1275-1292

Addai of Tur Abdin 1280

The monk Simon Isaiah of Bartulli, from 1280

St. Matthew Monastery

John Bacchus of Bartulli 1280

Deacon Ibrahim Ayyub (Job) Dunaysari 1285

The monk-priest and ascetic Zakhi Habbo 1290

Kanni, known as Abu Nasr of Bartulli
Deacon Abd Allah Abdo of Bartulli 1269-1345

The monk-priest Yeshu, son of priest Barsoum 1298

Arbani

Abu al-Hasan ibn Ibrahim ibn Mahruma of Mardin 1299
The Fourteenth Century

The priest Ibrahim, from the village of Bagdashiyya 1314

Deacon Masud Turkumani of Arbo

1314

Master Saliba Khayrun of Hah

1323-1340

Master Yeshu Khayrun of Hah

1323-1235

The priest Gabriel, son of priest Sergius of

1324

Baqesyan

The monk-priest John Isaiah of Bartulli

1328

Master Yeshu John Ballidari, pupil of the

1330

Khayrun brothers

The monk Yeshu, son of priest Aaron from

1332

the village of Shib, from St. Gurgis Monastery

Simon

Mansur

Joseph Sbat of Amid

1352

The monk Joseph, from the Qatra Monastery

1354

Haster Daniel of Mardin, the philosopher

1357-1382

The monk Isa of Hattakh

1357

Dionysius Joseph Gharib, metropolitan

1357-1375

of Amid

179

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Master Jacob, son of priest Bahnam of 1 382- 1404

Manimim, from the Monastery of Scete

Patriarch Phelixene 11 1382-1421

Priest David ibn Abu al-Muna of Qellith 1389

The monk Ibrahim of Hah 1389

The Fifteenth Century

Deacon David Joseph, son of Lazarus the 1403

Egyptian Syrian

Patriarch Basilius Simon Zwida of Manimim 1421-1444
Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl 1425

The monk-priest Mubarak of Amid, from 1420- 1425

the Monastery of St. Hananya

Deacon-monk Simon Mubarak of Mansura 1436

Master Yeshu Kughaym Basibrina 1439- 1492

The monk Joseph, from the Qatra Monastery 1443

The priest John Sulayman Masud, from Qaryatayn 1446

The monk-priest Joseph, son of priest Saliba 1457- 1459

of Amas

The monk-priest David Abd al-Karim of Hims 1461-1492
Cyril Qufer, son of Benjamin Kafri, 1464-1468

metropolitan of Karkar

The monk-priest Bahnam, son of priest Saba 1465- 1473
of Midyat

The priest Zakhi Gabriel of Hisn Kifa 1464

Master Ibrahim Bahnam Zanbur of Basibrina 1465- 1512
The monk Joseph of Midyat 1466

Dioscorus Simon, son of priest Saliba of 1468-1501
Ayn Ward, metropolitan of Jazira

The priest Barsoum, living at Hims 1470

The priest Addai, son of priest Malke of 1472-1502
Basibrina

The monk-priest Saliba of Karkar 1472

Patriarch Nuh the Lebanese 1473- 1 509

Basilius Musa Ubayd of Sadad, metropolitan 1474-1510
of Hims

The monk Saliba of Midyat 1474

The monk-deacon Gabriel Yeshu of Basibrina 1474
The monk-priest Malke Saqo Kughaym 1476-1490

of Basibrina

The monk-priest Aziz Saliba of Midyat 1474-1510
Metropolitan Cyril Joseph, son of Peter of 1477-1 513

Kafr Hawwar

The monk-priest Saliba, from the Monastery 1478

of Umr

Metropolitan Habib of Salh 1481-1508

Patriarch J acob Muzaw waq 1482-1517

Bishop Clemis David Bati 1483-1502

Philoxenus Jurjis Qarman, metropolitan of 1483-1504
Hardin and Hama

The monk-priest Musa the Lebanese, from 1484

the Monastery of the Syrians in Egypt

Metropolitan Sergius, son of priest Joseph 1484-1508

Qaruna of Hah

Patriarch Yeshu of Qellith 1488-1530

The ascetic priest Tuma of Hims 1490

Master Denha, son of priest Malke Sayfi of 1496-1498
Salh, from the Cross Monastery
Basilius Sulayman Albanus of Mardin, 1498-1518

maphrian of the East

Joseph the Gurji, metropolitan of Jerusalem 1498-1537

The Sixteenth Century

Metropolitan Iyawannis 1504

Philoxenus Ibrahim Hudayban, metropolitan 1505-1524
of Hardin and Hama

The priest Faraj Jacob the Lebanese, resident 1510-1537
of Aleppo

The monk-priest Iyawannis Simon of Mansura 1512-1519
Priest Simon, son of priest Ibrahim Shumays, 1517-1523
native of Hirrin and resident of Qusur
The Iconomus Sad Allah of Hims 1518

The priest Barsoum Hilal of Sadad 1521

Athanasius Ibrahim Halawa of al-Nabk, 1526-1564

metropolitan of Hims, Hama, and Hardin
John Abd Allah of Mardin, metropolitan 1531-1577
of Jerusalem

Master Qawma Simon, the monk of Zaz 1537-1559
Metropolitan Musa, son of priest Isaac 1542-1587

Qaluqi of Sur

The monk-priest Abd al-Aziz Silakhi of Qusur 1546-1550

The monk-priest Iliyya John Pack of 1547-1560

Qalat al-Imra’a

Deacon Abu al- Hasan 1549

The monk-priest Alyan Zalta of Nabk 1 549

Metropolitan Cyril Bishara Zalta of Nabk 1556-1578

Dioscorus Michael of Nabk, metropolitan 1559

of Damascus

Patriarch Pilate Mansuri 1566-1597

Iliyya, son of priest Mansur of Zaz, 1567-1608

metropolitan of the Monastery of the Cross
The master monk Bulus (Paul) Abd al-Aziz 1567-1585
Mansuri, abbot of St. Azazel Monastery
Bahnam Habib, native of Arbo and 1567-1614

resident of Qusur, metropolitan of Jerusalem

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

The monk-priest Abd al-Ahad of Beth 1572-1580

Khudayda

The monk Khushaba Hormizd of Beth Khudayda 1 575

Ephraim Daniel Qawimi, metropolitan of Saur 1575

John Abd al-Masih of Beth Khudayda, 1567-1625

metropolitan of St. Bahnam Monastery

The monks Yeshu, Daniel of Qusur, and Ibrahim 1577
of Aleppo (Secretaries to Patriarch Dawud
(David) Shah).

Vanes Mardiros Najjar Wanki, metropolitan of 1577-1624

Cappadocia and Edessa

Master Ibrahim Maqdisi Yeshu Ghawzi of 1579-1 607

Qusur

The priest Abd Allah, son of priest Abd 1 580?

al-Ghani Mansuri

Malke 1580?

Deacon Hasan Abd al-Ahad, son of Maqdisi 1581-1588
Jacob of Qusur

The priest Abd Allah of Mardin 1 5 84

The monk-priest Pilate Mukhtar Urbishi of Karkar 1 584

The priest Abd al-Nur, son of Deacon 1 588- 1 624

Stephen Dayrali

Metropolitan Gharib of Basibrina 1589-1592

Master Mikha Najjar Dawlatshah Wanki, 1589-1606

of Karkar

The monk Barsoum Istwazadur of Karkar, 1590

abbot of St. Barsoum Monastery

Gregorius Michael Barsoum of Urbish, 1590- 1618

metropolitan of Karkar

The monk-priest Abd Allah Matlub Tararikha 1592-1621
of Mardin, known as Mashlul (“Paralyzed”)

Basilius Isaiah, son of priest Musa of Inhil, 1593-1635
maphrian of the East

The monk-priest Sahdo, son of Maqdisi Vanes 1594-1599
of Karkar, from the Monastery of St. Barsoum

Metropolitan Dionysius Abd al-Hayy, son of 1594-1621
priest John of Mardin

The monk-priest Rizq Allah ibn Ibrahim, from 1595
Qalat al-Imra’a

The priest Abd a] -S ayyid Dayrali 1596

The Seventeenth Century

The monk Abd al- Azim , son of Deacon 1601-1612

Joseph Killini, resident of St. Bahnam ’s cell

The monk-priest Cyriacus, son of the monk 1611-1640
Abd a]-Karim Mansuri

The monks Abd al-Daim and Isa, brothers of 1612

monk Abd al-Azim

Ephraim Johannes Wanki of Karkar, 1612- 1675

metropolitan of Hattakh

Deacon Nimat of Mardin 1616

The Chorepiscopus Aslan Murabbi, native of 1638-1659
Mardin and resident of Aleppo

Bahnam, son of Habib Bati, maphrian of 1645-1655
the East

Metropolitan Murad Abd al-Aziz Dabbagh 1657-1673
Dayrali

The monk Bulus Madani

The Chorepiscopus Musa Hatum ibn Alkan 1661

of Nabk

The monk-priest Yeshu, resident of 1666

St. Bahnam ’s cell

The priest Abd al-Ahad, son of Jacob 1 668- 1 690

al-Qizil of Qellith

Patriarch Jurjis 1 1 , son of Abd al-Karim 1678-1708
of Mosul

The priest Abd Allah, son of Maqdisi Ibrahim 1686

Maphrian Shimun (Simon), son of Malke 1696-1740
of Manimim

The Eighteenth Century

The monk-priest Abd al-Nur of Amid 1700-1755

The monk-priest Joseph Gurji of Aleppo, 1705-1730
secretary to Patriarch Jurjis 11

Jurjis, son of Ibrahim Abd al-Nur of Aleppo, 1707-1737

metropolitan of Bushayriyya

Athanasius Aslan of Amid, metropolitan of 1707-1740

Diyarbakr

The Chorepiscopus Abd Yeshu ibn Nima 1713-1751
Tantin of Qusur

The priest Tuma Abd al-Nur of Amid 1721

Metropolitan John, son of Deacon Shahin 1732-1755
of Amid

The monk-priest Ibrahim al-Akhras of Sadad 1757-1764

Musa, son of the priest John of Aleppo 1761

The Chorepiscopus Jacob, son of Deacon 1764-1783
Tuma Khawaja of Qutrubul

Bishop Clemis Ibrahim, son of Abd Allah 1764-1821

Yaziji of Sadad

Deacon Ibrahim Khidr of Aqra 1779-1786

lliyya Shiah of Mardin, metropolitan of 1790-1805
Bushayriyya

The Nineteenth Century

Metropolitan Abd al-Nur Haddad of Arbo 1805-1841

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

The priest Nicholas B warid of Karkar 1 820

Malke of Inhil, bishop of Midyat 1841-1864

Zaytun of Inhil, metropolitan of the Patriarchal 1842-1855
Office and then of Midyat

The monk Barsoum, son of priest Shabo Krigho 1844
of Midyat

Metropolitan Saliba, son of Deacon Joseph 1 853-1885
of Basibrina

Patriarch Abd Allah 1 1 of Sadad 1 864- 1915

Jurjis Farah Kassab, metropolitan of Jerusalem 1866-1896

The priest Gurgis, son of priest Peter Cholchi 1869

of Amid

The subdeacon Aaron Boghos Kashish Oghli 1877

of Edessa

Deacon Matta Bulus of Mosul 1889-1943

The priest Abd al-Aziz, son of priest Gurgis, 1890-1921
native of Hbab and resident of Bashiqa
The priest Jacob Saka of Bartulli 1895-1931

The monk -priest Yeshu, son of Maqdisi 1900-1916

Gharibo of Manimim, from the
Zafaran Monastery

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Section V

Geographical names of countries, towns, villages,
and monasteries mentioned in this book, in addition to
those names familiar to the reader

Agel: a small town north of Diyarbakr
Amasea: a town fifty miles south of Samsun, on the
bank of Yashil Irmaq

Amid (Diyarbakr): an ancient fortified city, virtually
surrounded by the Tigris

Ana: a town in Iraq, west of the Euphrates and
southeast of Dayr al-Zur.

Apamea: once a large city northeast of Hama, it is
now in ruins and is called Qalat al- Madiq

Al-Aqr: a citadel two days’ journey north of Mosul. It
is known as Aqr al-Humaydiyya

Aqsarai (Aqsara): a town sixty miles northeast of
Konya.

Arban: a town on the west bank of the Khabur River
in aljazira, opposite al-Ajjaja

Arbil: a town about two days’ journey southeast of
Mosul

Arqa: a town, formerly west of Malatya (Melitene);
still inhabited

Arsamosata (Samosata) : a city in the Roman territory
on the Euphrates. To its east lies Balu, and to its west
Kharput, contiguous to Armenia.

Arzenjan: a town southwest of the province of Erzrum.
The natives call it Arzinkan

Arzun: a large city, formerly northwest of Seert. Its
ruins can still be seen

Atharb: a citadel between Aleppo and An tioch, some
three leagues distant from Aleppo. It no longer exists.

Ayn Daba: a town in the district of Antioch whose
location is unknown; birthplace of the leamedjacob of
Edessa

Ayn Zarba (Anazarba): a town in Cilicia, on the river
Jihan. Today it is a small village called Anazura

Azekh: a large ancient village in the province of
Bazabdi (Beth Zabdai), about seven hours’ journey
from Jazirat ibn Umar. It is inhabited by Syrians

Azerbaijan: a vast territory whose boundaries ex-
tended from the Caspian Sea in the east to Lake Van in
the west

Baarbaya: a small territory be tween Nisibin and Sinjar
Badlis: a town near Khalat, southeast of Lake Van
Bagdashiyya: a village near Kafrtut, in the province of
Mardin

Bajabbara: a village north of Mosul on the Khuser
Creek, ruined in the middle of the thirteenth century.

Balad: an ancient town above Mosul on the western
bank of the Tigris, ruined in the fourteenth century. It
is now called Eski Mosul

Bals (Balsh): a town in Syria between Aleppo and al-
Raqqa, known in antiquity as Perpalisos, it is now called
Maskana

Baltan: an extinct village in the province of Josya,
seven hours’ journey south of Hims

Banuhadra: a town north of Mosul, now called Duhuk
Baqufa: a village in the mountains of Lebanon.
Baremman, Beth Remman (Barumma) : a village on
the Tigris, now in ruins, five hours’ journey northeast of
Mosul

Barumana (or Rumana): an ancient town in Karkar
(in Iraq).

Bartulli: a large village in the province of Nineveh,
north of Mosul

Basekhra: a small village east of Bartulli (in Iraq)
Bashiqa: a village north of Mosul.

Batnan: an ancienttown, formerly located near Saruj
Beth Arsham: an extinct town south of Baghdad,
near al-Madain (Ctesiphon). Its exact location is un-
known

Beth Batin: an extinct town outside Harran
Beth Khudayda: a large village in the province of
Nineveh, north of Mosul; now called Qaraqosh

Beth Shahaq: an ancient town in the province of
Mosul

Bushayriyya, al-: a town two days’ journey north of
Diyarbakr

Busra: a small town in Hawran, now called Eski Sham
Caesarea: a town southeast of Ankara, known today
as Qaysar (Caesar) .

Claudia: a citadel near Melitene, destroyed and re-
built by al-Hasan ibn Quhtuba in 141 A.H. Around the
citadel was built a town bearing the same name, but it
was laid to ruin after the thirteenth century

Cyzicus: an ancient city on the Sea of Marmara,
destroyed by an earthquake in 943 A.D.

Dara: a town situated at the foot of the mountain
between Nisibin and Mardin. Built in 506 A.D., it re-
mained a seat of Syrian bishops until the middle of the
twelfth century. Today it is an insignificant village.

Dayr Habil: a village in the province of Seert, which
I do not believe is inhabited.

Dayr Iliyya: a farm south of Mardin, at the foot of the
mountain of Mardin. It was named after the prophet
Iliyya (Elijah), because of a church in it bearing the
name of this prophet. Today it is called Jaftalik in
Turkish

Dawlo: a small town northwest of Mersin
Duluk (Doliche): a small town in the province of
Aleppo, twelve miles from Samosata.

Dunaysar: situated south of Mardin, Dunaysarwasa
large town in the thirteenth century. Today it is a small

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

village, called Quch Hisar, near Tall al-Arman.

Farzman: an ancient town north of Birijik on the
river Farzman, a tributary of the Euphrates called
Marziman.

Fayruza: a village north of Hims, heavily populated
by Syrians

Al-Gabbul: a town north of Aleppo, near the
Euphrates, from which salt was brought to the province
of Aleppo.

Al-Hafar: avillage in the province of Hims, an hour’s
journey south of Sadad

Hardin: avillage in the Batrun in Lebanon, six hours’
journey from Tripoli

Harqal: an ancient town in Palestine, whose location
is unknown

Harran: once a great city, a day’s journey south from
Edessa. It was considered the capital of Diyar Misr, but
now is a small village

Hassasa: an ancient village in southern Iraq, near
Qasr ibn Hubayra, in the vicinity of al- Kufa

Hattakh: a citadel and a small town north of
Miyafarqin, in the Sufniyyin province; popularly called
Antakh.

Herrin: a village south of Mardin

Hidl: a village of Bazabdi, above Isfes.

Al-Hira : an ancient city, three miles from Kufa and
east of al-Najaf

HLsn Batriq: a town formerly located between Aleppo
and al-Raqqa.

Hisn Kifa: a town and a great citadel overlooking the
Tigris, between Amid and Jazirat ibn Umar. Once the
capital of a branch of the Ayyubid state until the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century, it is now a small village

Hisn Mansur: a town north of Samosata on the west
bank of the Euphrates; also called Adyaman

Hisn Ziyad: the town of Kharput in Armenia, be-
tween Amid and Melitene. Its people moved to the
nearby new town of Mamurat al-Aziz.

Irqa: a town on the seashore between Raphina and
Tripoli, about four leagues from the latter city.

Isfes: a village in the province of Bazabdi, one hour’s
journey from Azekh.

ALJabal al-Aswad (“The Black Mountain”): a moun-
tain near Antioch in Seleucia, which is now called
Suwaydiyya.

AJ-Jabal al-Mubarak (“The Blessed Mountain”): a
mountain in the district of Melitene.

Al-Jabal al-Muqaddas (“The Holy Mountain”): a
mountain east of Edessa which became famous for its
many monasteries.

Jarabulus: the ancient Europa, a town west of the
Euphrates and north of Manbij (in Syria) .

[Upper] Jazira (Diyar Rabia): a district between the
rivers Khabur and Tigris. In ancient times it was the
abode of the bann Taghlib, a large Arab tribe which was
Syrian Orthodox and remained Christian until the
tenth century. One of its members is the famous poet

Ghiyath ibn Ghawth, nicknamed al-Akhtal (ca. 710
A.D.). Itbecame desolate in the fourteenth century, but
was resettled about 1921. New towns such as Hasaka,
Qamishli, and others were built in it.

Jazirat ibn Umar: a town between Mosul and
Diyarbakr, in a deep valley on the west bank of the
Tigris.

Josya: a district about six leagues from Hims, towards
Damascus, situated between the mountains of Lebanon
and Sinnir. Today it is a small village, recently built near
the ruins of ancient Josya.

Jubas: a ruined city near Melitene

Kabiyya: avillage in the vicinity of Diyarbakr which was
populated by Syrians. It was destroyed in World War I.

Kafrhawwar: a village in the province of Tripoli

Kafrtab: an ancient town in the Muattasha desert
between Maarrat al-Numan and Aleppo

Kafrtibna: an ancient village near Harran.

Kafrtut: a town between Daraand Ras Ayn, southwest
of Mardin; now only a village.

Kandinat:a town in the northeastern part of Malabar,
in India.

Kaniq: Avillage in the province of Nisibin; it is called
Qaniq in Syriac.

Karkh Slukh: the present city of Kirkuk, in Iraq.

Karkar (Jarjar): an ancient citadel and town near
Melitene, between Samosata and Hisn Ziyad, west of the
Euphrates.

Kesum: an ancient town in the province of Samosata,
between Aleppo and al-Ruha. It also had a citadel.

Khabura: a large territory containing many towns,
extending between Ras Ayn and the Euphrates on the
banks of the Khabur in aljazira, from which it derived
its name. Among its ancient towns are Qarqisiyya,
Macine, Majdal, and Arban

Kharshana: a town near Melitene.

Killiz (Killis): a town in the northern part of the
province of Aleppo

Kishir: a village in the province of Antioch, birth-
place of the Syriac poet Shimun (Simon) the Potter
(514 A.D.).

Klaybin: a village about seven hours’ distance south
of Mardin, heavily populated by Syrians in the sixteenth
century

Kondar: perhaps Kandiri, north of Izmid, near the
Black Sea

Konya: a city in central Anatolia, south of Ankara

Komasha: a village in the district of Baarbaya adja-
cent to the Izla Mountain

Al-Kufa (Aqula): in southern Iraq; no longer in
existence

Laqbin: an ancient town in the province of Melitene.

Al-Madan: a town in the vicinity of Sherwan, in the
province of Seert; now a village

Mayuma: an ancient port on the Mediterranean,
near Gazza.

Majdal: an ancient town near the river Khabur,

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

below Ras Ayn . Yaqut al-Hamawi mentions a contempo-
rary poet from this village.

Malabar: a territory in southwest India, on the Indian
Ocean; it includes the provinces of Travancore and
Cochin.

Malatya (Melitene) : a city in the province of Mamurat
al-Aziz, near the Euphrates. In the past it was large and
famous. It was one of the largest centers of the Syrians,
who in 1049 A.D. had fifty-six churches there. Itwasalso
the birthplace of a number of Syrian learned men.
Today It is a small town. (See the biography of
Christodolus by Michael, Coptic bishop of Tinnis [d.
1069], in Assemani’s “Confession of the Fathers,”
Bibliotheca Orientalis, II, 145-152, and in the Coptic
Patriarchal Library)

Manazgird (Manzikert): now called Manashgird, a
town north of Lake Van

Manbij: once a large town in the northeastern part of
the province of Aleppo, three leagues from the
Euphrates. Today it is a small town

ALMansuriyya: a village northwest of Mardin
Maragha: a most famous town of Azerbayjan, sou th of
Tabriz and east of Lake Urmiya.

Marga (Maij) : a place northeast of Mosul, formerly a
big province.

Marash: the ancient Germanicia, north of Aleppo
and south of Sivas.

Masarte: a village six hours’ journey north of Mardin
Mashhad Kuhayl: Yaqut says, “Kuhayl was a big city on
the Tigris between the two Zabs, above Takrit, going
southwards. Today it is no more.” Kuhayl was the birth-
place of the Syrian learned man Moses bar Kifa (d. 903) .
Al-Massisa: a town on the Jijan, just east of Adana.
Miyafarqin: once the most famous city in the north-
eastern part of the province of Diyarbakr, now a small
town.

Najran: an ancient city in northeastern Yaman.
Narsibad: perhaps Naryan or al-Nars, or possibly
another location, a territory between al-Kufa and Wasit
in southern Iraq.

Niksar: a town in Turkey, northeast of Tokat
Nisibin: a town in thejazira, five days’ journey from
Mosul; today it is a small town. Nisibin is also the name
of a village on the west bank of the Euphrates, west of
Birijik, formerly known as the Byzantine Nisibin.

Orim: a ruined town on the Euphrates, near Samosata
Philipp i: an ancient city in the easternmost part of
Macedonia; it lay in ruins after the thirteenth century
Qalat al-Imra’a: a village north ofMardin, on the way
to the Zafaran Monastery.

Qalat al-Rutn: an ancient fortified citadel and town
west of the Euphrates, opposite al- Bira. The name of
the citadel was Zughma.

Qaluq: a town in the province of al-Sawar, populated
by Syrians until the middle of the seventeenth century
Qallisura: an ancient town in the vicinity of Melitene
Qarikara: a village in the province of Melitene. Mas-

ter Saliba Qarikari (d. 1164) is thought to have come
from there.

Qarqisun (Qarqisyya): a town near the place where
the Khabur joins the Euphrates; it no longer exists. On
its site lies the village of Abu Saray (Busayra)

Qar Shar (Qir Shar): a town southeast of Ankara
Al-Qaryatayn: a small town in the province of Hims,
about ten days’ journey from there on the way to the
desert between Sukhna and Arak

Qawartam: a village on the Euphrates, the birthplace
of Jacob of Saruj (d. 521).

Qawim: a village in the vicinity ofMardin, inhabited
until 1635.

Qinnesrin: a district and a town between Aleppo and
Hims; no longer in existence

Qronta: an ancient town on the east bank of the
Tigris, near the Great Zab.

Qusur (al-Kawliyya) : a village about two hours’ jour-
ney south ofMardin, heavily populated by Syrians.

Qutrubul: a town on the Tigris, opposite the city of
Diyarbakr. Its Syrian population left it in 1928.

Qellith: a big village about a day’s journey north from
Mardin, heavily populated by Syrians.

Raban: a town between Aleppo and Samosata, near
the Euphrates, no longer in existence

Al-Raqqa: the ancient Callinicus, it was a big city near
the Euphrates. Today it is a small town, more nearly a
village

Ras al-Ayn: a town located at the source of the river
Khabur in the Jazira. It was settled in the thirteenth
century, butwas laid waste in 1869. Itwas later resettled
by a Circassian tribe, and then by Syrians and Arme-
nians, who built churches in it.

Romaniya: a village in the Sawar district, populated
by Syrians until the end of the sixteenth century
Rudwan: a village northeast of Hisn Kifa.

Al-Ruha: a famous city, five days’ journey eastward
from Aleppo, now called Urfa.

Ruhin: a village near Antioch.

Sadad: an old, small town southeast of Hims, about
one day’s journey from Damascus

Salahiyya: a town east of Yarbuz in the Adana prov-
ince.

Al-Salihiyya: a village near al-Ruha, established by
Abd al-Malik ibn Salih al-Hashimi. Al-Khalidi states that
it was near al-Raqqa, near Batyas and the Monastery of
Mar Zakka. The first person to build palaces there was
the Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi.

Al-Salihiyya: a large village which was situated in the
Ghula of Damascus, at the foot of Qasyun Mountain. It
has now become part of Damascus.

Salamiyya (Salamya): a town southeast of Hama,
toward the desert

Samando (Semando): a town in central Anatolia
Samosata: a town on the Euphrates, north ofal-Ruha
Saruj: a small town in the Mudar territory, between
Harran andjarabulus

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Al-Sawar: a town and citadel about one day’sjoumey
northeast from Mardin

Scete: a desert west of Cairo, once the abode of
Egyptian ascetics.

Seert: a town south of Bedlis

Seleucia (Ctesiphon) : two connected cities called al-
Madain. They were the capital of the Sassanids, situated
about six hours’ journey south of Baghdad. Both these
cities were destroyed at the beginning of the Arab
conquest Near their site is the presentvillage of Salman
Pak.

Semqa (Semqe): a village two hours’ journey north-
east of Diyarbakr. It may be the village called Summaqli.

Sermin: a small town in the province of Aleppo.

Sidos: a village in the Manazgird territory

Sijistan: a vast territory, ten days’ journey south of
Herat

Sinjar: a town situated at the foot of the Sinjar
mountain, three days’ journey from Mosul.

Sozopolis: a town in Pisidia in Asia Minor, west of
Konya, no longer in existence.

Al-Sus: a town in Khuzistan (Ahwaz); the ancient
Susa.

Swayrik: a town in Karkar, about two days’ journey
southwest of Diyarbakr. It may be Sibaberk.

Tabriz (Tawriz): a very famous town of Azerbayjan,
in Persia.

Tahal: an ancient village in the province of Bajermi
(Beth Garmai), which is the Liwa of Kirkuk (in Iraq).

Takrit: an ancient city west of the Tigris, between
Baghdad and Mosul. In the golden age of the Syrians, it
was the seat of the Maphrians of the East from 628 A.D.
until the end of the twelfth century.

Talla (Tall Mawzalt, or Mawzan) : once a flourishing
town between Mardin and al-Ruha (Edessa) , about two
leagues from Mardin. Today it is a small village called
Wayran Shahr.

TallArsenius (Tell) : on the Euphrates, near Kharput.

Tallbsam (Tallbsma) : a town in the district of Rabia,
later Shabakhtan, northwest of Mardin.

Tall Batriq: a town formerly in Roman territory, one
of many which formed the line of fortification between
Roman and Muslim territories near Malatya (Melitene) .

Tall Mahre: a small town between Hisn Maslama ibn
Abd al-Malikand al-Raqqa, now called Tall al-Manakhir.

Tall Qbab: a village near Mardin; it had a substantial
population in the thirteenth century.

Tiflis: an old city in Georgia, in Russia.

Tinnis: an ancient city southwest of Port Said, ruined
in 1227 A.D.

Tur Abdin: a mountain connected with the moun-
tain oflzla, which overlooks Nisibin. The territory of the
same name harbors a great number of monasteries and
cells, as well as some fifty villages large and small. Two-
thirds of the inhabitants of these villages are Syrian
Christians; the restare Muslims and Yezidis. The capital
of Tur Abdin is MidyaL Following are the names of the

villages mentioned in our book: to the east of Tur Abdin
are situated Inhil, Fifyath, Qartamin; to the west are
Bati, Habsnas, Salh, Arnas, Aynward, Kafra, Kafarze,
Kafrsalta, Kafrshami, and Kandarib; to the north are
Alin, Baqisyan, Hah, Hisn Kifa, Dayr Salib, Zaz, and
Karburan; to the south are Arbo, Badebba, Basibrina,
Banimim, Tamars, Hbab, Sari Awastir, Arban, and
Meddo. The ruined villages, and those whose location
is unknown, are Halih, Zabdiqa, Kafryab, and Kalasht.

Urbish: a big village in Karkar, inhabited by Syrians
until recent times.

Wank: a village in the province of Karkar, also called
Dayr Abu Ghalib

Zarjal: a large village in al-Bushayriyya, in the prov-
ince of Diyarbakr

Monasteries 1

St. Aaron Monastery: in the Blessed Mountain near
Melitene, was built by St. Aaron of Saruj, the ascetic, in
389. It produced six bishops between 1088 and 1289.

St. Aaron Monastery: in Shaghr, in the province of
Qallisura. Two patriarchs and five bishops graduated
from it between 986 and 1 1 70.

St. Abai Monastery, the Persian martyr, is north of
Qellith. It was a large monastery, established in the sixth
century. In 1250 it had about sixty monks. Later, it
became an episcopal see, and from it came one Patri-
arch and eleven bishops. It was abandoned in 1700 and
its ruins can still be seen.

St. Abhai Monastery, or the Monastery of the Lad-
ders, is on the right bank of the Euphrates, a half-hour’s
journey from the village of Urbish, near Karkar. It was
established sometime after the fifth century, and was
first mentioned by historians in the beginning of the
ninth century. It produced one Patriarch and fourteen
bishops. It was inhabited until the beginning of the
eighteenth century. Some of its ruins are still standing.

The Monastery of Abu Ghalib, or the King’s Table
Monastery, in Karkar, wasbuiltin 1138 and remained in
existence until 1600. In 1170, Patriarch Michael the
Great rebuilt its church. It produced five bishops

The Arabs’ Monastery: between Tall Mawzalt and
Tallbsam, nearer to Tall Mawzalt. It was built in the fifth
century and is described in history as having been
inhabited from 521 to 854. Four bishops graduated
from it.

Arnish Monastery, in the vicinity of Kesum and Raban,
was usurped by the wicked Gurtij the Armenian, who
persecuted and expelled its monks, converting it into a
citadel in 1114, but the monks were able to regain it.
Between 1095 and 1132, six bishops graduated from it.

St. Awgayn (Eugene) Monastery: at the foot of the
Izla mountain, which overlooks Nisibin. Builtat the end
of the fourth or the start of the fifth century, it suffered
many vicissitudes. The Nestorians held it for a long

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

time, but we regained it at the end of the eighteenth
century. It produced two bishops. At presen t it is inhab-
ited by only one monk.

St. Azazel Monastery, which was inhabited by monks
between 1500 and 1600;

St. Bahnam Monastery, also called the Pit Monastery,
is situated aboutsix hours’ journey southeast of Mosul.
It was built in the beginning of the fifth century. From
it graduated one maphrian and seven bishops. Ini 839,
it was usurped by a group which seceded and joined the
Catholic church. It was deserted for some sixty years,
but is now populated.

Baqismat (or Phaqismat) Monastery is situated in
Sis, Cilicia. Patriarch John XII resided there in 1108.
Between 1266 and 1279, it was burned three times by
Egyptian troops, who also killed twenty-five monks. (See
Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, pp. 523, 531, 542).
Gregorius, metropolitan of Sis, may have belonged to
this monastery around 1290.

St. Barbara Monastery: in the Mountain of Edessa.
There is another monastery by the same name. This one
was established in the beginning of the fifth century, but
was not mentioned by historians until 1191. From it
graduated Basilius Faris, metropolitan of Edessa (d.
1204).

Al-Barid Monastery was built in the province of
Melitene in 969 by the Patriarch Yuhanna (John) VII,
who lived and died there. A magnificent monastery, it
produced one Patriarch, one maphrian, and eighteen
bishops and metropolitans. We find no mention of it
after 1213.

St. Barsoum Monastery: built on top of a mountain
near Melitene, it looks like a citadel, a fact which has led
some writers to call it the Monastery of the Cave. It was
first mentioned in church history in 790. It was the
patriarchal see from the eleventh century until the
thirteenth century. A great monastery, it produced five
patriarchs and forty-three metropolitans. It remained
populated until the middle of the seventeenth century,
when it was abandoned.

St. Basus Monastery, near Harim, between Euphemia
and Hims, is a famous and great monastery which was
built in 480 through the private donation of the emi-
nent Syrian Butrus ibn Yusuf (Peter son of Joseph) of
Hims, who bequeathed a great deal of property for the
sustenance of its monks. In the third decade of the fifth
century, its monks numbered 6,300. It remained popu-
lated until 830, and produced three bishops

Bauth (or Banu Bauth) Monastery near Kharput,
first was mentioned in history in 1057. It produced four
bishops. In 1290 itwas ransacked by a group of Muslims,
and Muslims finally occupied it in 1311

Beth Batin Monastery: in Harran. A synod met there
in 793. Itproduced one Patriarch and three bishops and
remained active until 975

Beth Malke Monastery: in the province of Antioch. It
was in this monastery that Dionysius II resided in the

middle of the seventh century and translated books of
philosophy into our Syriac language.

The Monastery of the Cross, between Zaz and Hisn
Kifa in Tur Abdin, was first mentioned in history in 775.
Itwas the see of the bishops of Hah from 1089 to 1873.
One patriarch of Tur Abdin, a maphrian, and six bish-
ops graduated from it. In the middle of the last century
it became the site of a small village, but its church still
exists.

The Monastery of the Cross: a small monastery near
the village of Dafna on the way to Hisn Kifa, now called
Makhr or Wadi in Kurdish. Its church, built in 770, was
destroyed in World War I, and the last of its monks was
killed. Three bishops graduated from it.

St. Cyriacus Monastery, near the village of Zarjal in
al-Bushayriyya, in the province of Diyarbakr, lies about
two days’ journey northeast of Diyarbakr. From the
beginning of the fifteenth century to the beginning of
the present century it was a bishopric see. It is still
standing, although no one has lived in it for two years.

The Monastery of Daniel the Jalshian ascetic (d.
439): in the mountain of Matiniyya, northwest of the
village of Dairkah, a day’s journey north of Mardin. It
was rebuilt by Yuhanna (John) , metropolitan ofMardin,
and was inhabited until 1230. Its magnificent remains
can be seen to this day.

Al-Dawair (“Circles”) Monastery, in the province of
Antioch, is first mentioned in history in 1112. From it
came one patriarch and four bishops.

St. Demete Monastery: in Claudia, first mentioned in
history in 1000. Dionysius V was consecrated there in
1034.

The Monastery of the Easterners, one of the biggest
and most important monasteries in the Mountain of
Edessa, was built in the fourth century. In 600 Domitian,
the Greek of Melitene, persecuted and killed about four
hundred of its monks for holding a belief contrary to
his. It remained in existence until the middle of the
thirteenth century, and produced eleven bishops.

The Monastery of Ibn Jaji: on the Dry river, in the
province of Melitene. Itwas established in 960 A.D. by
the monk Iliyya ibnjaji, in commemoration of the Forty
Martyrs. There the monk Yuhanna (John), the pupil of
Marun, taught linguistics and philosophy (ca. 980-999
A.D.). Sixteen eminent men of the church graduated
from it until 1105. In 1085, however, itwas destroyed in
an attack by three thousand Turkish soldiers against
Malatya (Melitene) .

The Monastery of St. Ibrahim and Abel: an old
monastery near Midyat, built about 763 A.D. It pro-
duced three bishops.

Fanur Monastery: the location of this monastery is
unknown; however, it was inhabited between 510 and
575.

Fsilta Monastery, or the Quarry Monastery, outside
Tall Mawzalt, was built in the fifth century, and it
produced five metropolitans. Nothing is known about it

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

after 880.

Fsilta Monastery, near Antioch, was first mentioned
in history in the sixth century.

Fusqin Monastery, also called the “Barefooted”
Monastery: on the left bank of the Euphrates, near St.
Abhai Monastery in Karkar. Master David and a group
of monks renovated it at the beginning of the eleventh
century. T o this monastery are attributed five bishops in
the tenth century. Its nave was built by the monk
Habakkuk (fl. ca. 1160). The monastery was still popu-
lated in 1565, but was abandoned a few years later.

The Gubba Baraya (“The Outer Pit”) Monastery,
located in the Euphrates desert between Aleppo and
Manbij, was built at the end of the fifth and the start of
the sixth century. Nothing is known about it after the
middle of the ninth century. It produced four patri-
archs and three bishops.

Gugel Monastery, believed to be in Tur Abdin, was
also called Beth Gugi Monastery. It remained active
until the beginning of the sixth century, but then was
deserted. On its ruins the Nestorian monastery of
Ibrahim of Kashkar was built, but it was regained by the
Syrians at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
They also regained possession of the Monastery of St.
Yuhanna al-Tai, near the Monastery of St. Awgayn (Eu-
gene), and renovated both of these monasteries.

St. Gurgis (George) Monastery, south ofMardin, was
renovated by Abu Ali, the chief physician in the twelfth
century. It is no longer in existence.

St. Gurgis (George) Monastery, located in a valley
south ofMardin, was renovated byjohn, metropolitan
of Mardin, in the middle of the twelfth century and
remained active until 1332. It produced one bishop.

Harbaz Monastery, also called Gurgis (George)
Monastery: in the province of Samosata. Its name first
appears in history at the end of the seventh century, but
nothing is known about it after the ninth century. From
it graduated one patriarch and five bishops.

St. Hananya (Hanina) Monastery: perhaps named
for Hanina the ascetic (d. 500). In it Peter III was
consecrated as the Patriarch in 581.

The Monastery of St. Jacob, the Doctor of the Church,
first mentioned in history in 1 165 and still active.

St. Jacob Monastery, near Kesum, was first men-
tioned in history at the end of the seventh century. Ten
bishops graduated from it between 810 and 925.

The Monastery of St. Jacob the Solitary, near the
village of Salh in Tur Abdin, is a big monastery built by
St Jacob the ascetic shortly before 419. Its nave, how-
ever, was not builtuntil 770. This monastery became the
see of the patriarchs of Tur Abdin in 1365. Two patri-
archs, a maphrian, and seven bishops graduated from it.
It is still inhabited.

The Monasteryof St. Jacob, the Doctorof the Church,
also called the Nawawis Monastery, in the Mount of
Edessa, an hour and a half south of the city. It was built
in the fifth century and was mentioned by John of

Ephesus in his history in 519. 3 It was renovated by its
abbot, John of Saruj, who was elevated to the office of
Maphrian of the East in 1164. It remained inhabited
until 1223. Its ruins are still visible.

Kafrtina Monastery, outside Harr an, south of Edessa,
was mentioned by historians for the first time in 710.

Khanushya Monastery, in the mountain of Sinjar, is
first mentioned in history in the sixth century. From it
graduated Maphrian Bulus (Paul) in 722, and the monk
David bar Paul in the beginning of the ninth century

Kasliyud Monastery: in the province of Marash. Be-
tween 1100 and 1200 four bishops graduated from it.

Kuwaykhat Monastery, near al-Massisa in Cilicia, was
first mentioned in history in 1208. Two patriarchs,
Ignatius IV (d. 1282) and Michael II (d. 1312), came
from it. It was in this monastery also that Phelixene II
was consecrated as patriarch in 1389.

The Monastery of the Magdalene, in the Bab al-
Amud district of Jerusalem, is an old monastery, first
mentioned in history in 1000. It was the see of the
metropolitan of Jerusalem. In 1235 it housed seventy
monks. Four metropolitans graduated from it. In the
fourteenth century it was usurped by a group of Mus-
lims, with the help of the Mamluks; they then converted
itinto a school called al-Maymuna. Parts of its ruinswere
still to be seen until the last century, but they no longer
exist

Madhiq Monastery, built in the name of the Virgin
and the Forty Martyrs in Claudia, near the village of
Sinjis, was first mentioned in history in 986. Ten metro-
politans graduated from it. In 1257 the henchmen of
Ahmad ibn Balias burned this monastery.

St. Malke Monastery: in Tur Abdin, near the villages
of Arkah and Badabbah. This monastery was builtabout
the sixth century and became a bishopric see in the
fourteenth century, but was finally destroyed in 1926. It
produced ten bishops.

St. Mark the Evangelist Monastery and the Virgin
Monastery: in Jerusalem. St. Mark is also known as the
Monastery of the Syrians. It is an old monastery, built in
the fifth or sixth century, according to an Estrangelo
Syriac inscription on a stone discovered in 1940. Today
it is the see of our metropolitan, and it has been the
home of our monks since 1472. The monastery has a
magnificent library and a press. It has produced seven
bishops.

Mar Matta (St. Matthew) Monastery: a large monas-
tery, built at the end of the fourth century, it became a
metropolitan see and still holds that honor today. At the
beginning it housed a great number of monks. It suf-
fered many changes and calamities until it was reno-
vated in 1 845. Itproduced two patriarchs, six maphrians,
and thirty bishops.

The Monastery of the Mother of God, or the Monas-
tery of the Solitary Strangers: in the Mount of Edessa,
south of the city of Edessa and the Nawawis Monastery.
The chronicler monk of Zuqnin mentioned it in his

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

history (ca. 751). One patriarch and some bishops
graduated from it. It remained active until the thir-
teenth century.

Al-Muallaq, or St. Sergius, Monastery is thought to
have been built in the fifth century in the name of the
ascetics Sergius, Zura, and Bauth, on the crest of the
Barren Mountain above Balad, three leagues from Sinjar,
west of Mosul. It produced one maphrian and some
bishops, and was a bishopric see from 1 1 67 to 1 345, after
which it became deserted. [See “Rihla ila Athar Dayr al-
Muallaq” (“A Trip to the Ruins of al-Muallaq Monas-
tery”), Al-Mashriq 3 : 7 (1951), 214-220. Although this
article is unsigned, it was written by the late Bishop
Gregorius Bulus Bahnam (d. 1969) , while he was still a
monk in Mosul. This editor was among the group which
visited the monastery with Rev. Bahnam].

Murayba Monastery: Murayba is a big village in the
province of Harran. Two bishops graduated from its
monastery in the first half of the ninth century.

St. Musa al-Habashi (Moses the Abyssinian) Monas-
tery: in the Mudakhkhin Mountain, an hour and a half
from the town of al-Nabk in Syria. This monastery was
built in the sixth century and renovated in 1556. It
became a metropolitan see at the end of the fourteenth
century. It was inhabited until 1 832, when it was usurped
from us (by the seceding faction which joined the
Church of Rome) through political influence, and later
was deserted. Two patriarchs and twenty bishops gradu-
ated from it

The Monastery of St. John Nayrab (Narab), the
location of this monastery is unknown to us. We know,
however, that Anba George was its abbot from 563 to
569.

The Monastery of St. John Orti:John the ascetic built
this monastery in 390 near Diyarbakr. Itproduced three
bishops, the most famous of whom is John of Ephesus,
the historian (d. 587) . We know nothing about it after
600.

The Mount Sinai Monastery, built on top of Mount
Sinai byjustinian, now belongs to the Greeks. Fifteen
monks presently live in it It has a magnificent library,
containing about 280 old Syriac manuscripts, most of
which are written in the Estrangelo and Malkite scripts.
It is also a bishopric seat whose metropolitan resides in
Cairo.

St Ousib Monastery: in Kafr al-Bira, in the province
ofApamea. It was built in the fifth century, but received
no mention by historians before 535.

St Ousibuna (Eusebius) Monastery: 2 near the village
of Talada, in the vicinity of Antioch. It was built by the
noble monk Eusebius the Great and Amian, who estab-
lished a school for the teaching of philosophy about
340. St. Simon the Stylite entered this monastery at the
beginning of his monastic vocation. In 409 A.D. it had
120 monks. It produced Patriarch John III and two
bishops in the ninth century.

Ouspholis Monastery, also called Fghimta: near Ras

Ayn in thejazira. Itwas built in the fifth century, but was
reduced to ruins shortly before 1203. It produced two
patriarchs and eleven bishops.

The Pillar Monastery: in al-Raqqa, on the west bank
of the Euphrates. The Empress Theodora (d. 548) gave
money for its construction, and in 635 itwas enlarged by
the monks. By 956, one patriarch and ten bishops had
graduated from it.

Qanqart Monastery, built in the name of the prophet
Iliyya (Elijah) near Qanqart, a journey of an hour and
a half from Diyarbakr, was first mentioned in history in
1050. Itwas twice renovated, once by Patriarch Michael
the Great in 1173, and again in 1730 by Patriarch
Ignatius Shukr Alla h. It was abandoned at the start of
the nineteenth century, and on its site today stands a
village called Qara Kelisa (“The Black Church,” be-
cause of the black stones of the area) . Its remains are still
visible. See the Patriarchal Magazine , VI, 144-153.

TheQarqafta (“Skull”) Monastery, between Ras Ayn
and Majdal in upper Jazira, was built by St. Simon, and
became famous at the beginning of the eighth century.
By the middle of the tenth century, six bishops had
graduated from it. It fell to ruin a long time ago.

Qartamin Monastery, four hours’ journey east of
Midyat, is the most famous monastery in Tur Abdin. It
was built in 397 by the two ascetics, St Samuel and St.
Simon. It is commonly called the Monastery of St.
Gabriel, after its abbot and bishop Gabriel (d. 667).
This monastery was the metropolitan see of Tur Abdin
from 615 to 1049. Afterwards, its metropolitan was the
ecclesiastical leader of a large part of Tur Abdin; still
later, however, hisjurisdiction was restricted to a private
diocese until 1915. This monastery claims four patri-
archs, a maphrian, and seventy bishops. It is still inhab-
ited.

The Qatra, or Natif, Monastery was built in the name
of the Virgin and St. Theodorus. It is a small monastery
hewn in the rocks in a moun tain overlooking the Zafaran
Monastery, and housed a group of monks. We have a
great deal of information about it since the fourteenth
century. At times it was administered by a bishop. It
became empty, however, about 1927.

The Qidr (or Qidar) Monastery, near Ras Ayn, was
first mentioned by historians in the sixth century. One
of its graduates is the chronicler-priest Tuma (Tho-
mas), in 636. Its monks later moved to the Pillar Mon-
astery.

Qinnesrin Monastery: built in the name of the Apostle
Thomas on the bank of the Euphrates, opposite
Jarabulus, about 530. It was a famous monastery until
the ninth century and at its high point housed about 370
monks. It was burned by some dissenters, but was
restored by Patriarch Dionysius I in 822. By 930, seven
patriarchs and fifteen bishops had graduated from it.
About 1025 itwas attached to the diocese ofSamosata.
Itis probable that it remained active until the thirteenth
century, after which itwas abandoned. See our article in

189

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the Patriarchal Magazine, IV, 265-278.

The Quba Monastery, also called the Monastery of the
Domes: in the Mountain of Edessa, south of St. Cosmas
Church. Built at the beginning of the fifth century, it was
destroyed by Ibn al-Bukhturi in 751, but was later re-
stored. By 873 it had produced three bishops.

The Monastery of Sarjisiyya, of the Monastery of the
Martyrs Sergius and Bacchus: its construction was be-
gun by the monk Kiso Ashnawi of Azerbayjan Jubas in
958, but was not finished until 1001. One of the profes-
sors at its school was Yuhanna, the pupil ofMarun. From
its founding until 1170, one maphrian and ten bishops
graduated from it.

St Sharbil Monastery, in Kafr Shami in Tur Abdin,
was first mentioned in history in 1210, and must have
remained in existence until the end of the sixteenth
century. It produced one maphrian.

St Shila Monastery: built in Saruj, and named after
Sl Shila (d. 506). Two synods were convened in this
monastery, in 706 and 846, and between 698 and 930 it
produced nine bishops.

St. Shina Monastery: in Marash. Seven bishops gradu-
ated from it between 805 and 1110.

Shiro Monastery was built in the name of St Shabtai,
a fifth-century ascetic, opposite the Monastery' of St.
Abhai, near the Monastery of Fusqin in Karkar. It was
restored by Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa
(1171-1191). While a monk, Patriarch Yuhanna XII
resided in this monastery, and in it he was consecrated
patriarch. It remained populated until the beginning of
the seventeenth century.

Sinun (Sinin) Monastery, near Edessa, was men-
tioned in history in 512 and 565. Itwas destroyed in 751
by the tyrant Abd Allah al-Bukhturi

St. Sulayman (Solomon) Monastery, in al-Thaghr,
near Duluk, overlooking Marj al- Ayn, was inhabited
between 875 and 1000. Thirteen bishops graduated
from it.

The Monastery of the Syrians: this monastery was
built in the name of the Virgin in the Scete desert in
Egypt, perhaps in the fifth century. In the middle of the
sixth century the Syrian merchant Marutha of Takrit
bought it and dedicated it to the Syrian monks, whose

number reached seventy in 1084. Inhabited by Syrian
monks until the seventeenth century, it is presently
inhabited by Coptic monks.

Talada Monastery, also known as the Great Monas-
tery, is situated south of Siman mountain, a twenty-
minute walk north of the village of Talada, in the
province of Antioch. It was built before 340 by Amian
the ascetic, and in it resided Eusebius the ascetic (both
men are mentioned above). This monastery is men-
tioned by chroniclers Theodoret of Cyrus and John of
Ephesus. In 942, Patriarch John built a tower there. It
produced nine bishops. Its remains can still be seen
today.

Taril Monastery: very near Aleppo, towards the gate
known as Bab Allah ( “The Gate of God ”) , from which its
Syriac name is derived. It was built in the sixth century,
and among its inhabitants was Tuma al-Harqali (Tho-
mas of Heraclea), the famous translator of the Bible. It
produced two Patriarchs and fifteen bishops. Nothing is
known about it after 975.

The Zafaran Monastery, or St. Hananya Monastery,
was built by Hananya, metropolitan of Mardin, between
793 and 800 on the site of an old monastery north of
Mardin. This great and populous monastery in 1293
became the patriarchal see for some six hundred years.
It claims twenty-one patriarchs, nine maphrians, and
110 bishops. In 1917 we published its detailed history,
entided Nuzhat al-Adhhan (“The Excursion of Minds”).
In its immediate neighborhood there are three small
monasteries close together:

St. Zakka (Zacchaeus) Monastery: in al-Raqqa, sur-
rounded by the Balikh river. It was once a great and
famous monastery;John of Talla became a monk there
in 508. From this monastery graduated Patriarch John
IV and twenty bishops, but it declined after 954. The
Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid visited it one day, liked
it, and bestowed favors on its monks.

St. Zakka (Zacchaeus) Monastery: in Karkar, also
called the Monastery of the Virgin, was rebuilt in 1588
and produced two bishops.

Zuqnin Monastery, outside Diyarbakr, is a famous,
great monastery. Iyawannis I (d. 775) and fourteen
bishops graduated from it.

190

NOTES

Translator’s Introduction

1. J. B. La Chabot Litterature Syriaque (Paris: 1934) , 9-
10. Chabotalso citesH. Omont, Inventairedela Collection
Renaudot a la Bibliotheque Nationale. See also by Chabot
Les Langes et la Litterature Arameenne (Paris: 1910), trans-
lated into Arabic by Anton Shukri Lawrence (Jerusa-
lem: 1930), 5.

2. Bishop G. Bulus Bahnam, Nafahat al-Khuzam aw
Hay at al-Batriyark Aphram (The Breath of Tulips or The
Life of the Patriarch Aphram), in Arabic (Mosul: 1959).

3. Viscount Philip de Tarrazi, Asdaq ma Kan an Tarikh
Lubnan wa Sajha min Akhbar al-Suryan I (Beirut: 1948) ,
432.

4. William Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature
(London: 1894), 74 where the author mentions one
anaphora by Philoxenus of Mabug.

PART ONE

CHAPTER I- The Syriac Language

1 . The parts of the Old Testamentwritten in Aramaic
arejeremiah 10:11, Ezra 4:6-7 6:18 and 7: 12, and Daniel
2:4. (ed.)

2. See Abu al-Qasim Said ibn Ahmad ibn Said al-
Andalusi, Tabaqat al-Umam. Arabic, edited by Rev. L.
Cheikho, S. J. (Beirut 1912); Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh
Mukhtasar al- DuwaL (Compendium History of Dynas-
ties), Arabic, edited by Rev. A. Salhani (Beirut: 1890),
18. See also Bar Hebraeus, Makhthabonulh Zabne
(Chronography) , edited and translated into English by
Ernest A. Wallis Budge I (Oxford: 1932), 8. (ed.)

3. The Biblical quotation given here does not seem to
be correct The writer must have had in mind the
Aramaic words “Jegarsahdutha, ” the monument of cov-
enant Genesis 31:47. (ed.)

4. The Syriac alphabet contains six letters each of
which has two sounds, hard and soft. These letters are
sometimes indicated by the mnemonic (b,g,d,k,f,t).
The soft form may be an aspirated form and the hard
one unaspirated. In the Nestorian or Eastern script
black dots are placed over the letter to indicate its hard
form and under it to denote its soft form. The Western
Syrians use a big red dot for the same. See Mgr. David,
Grammairede la Langue Arameenne, Arabic, (Mosul: 1896),
21. (ed.).

5. J.B. Chabotin histreatis e Les Langueset les Litter atures
Arameennes (Paris: 191 0) , maintains that Aramaic spread
from Nisibin to Raphia and from the shores of the
Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and was about to supersede
all other Semitic languages spoken at that time. ( ed.)

6. M. Mapsero. Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de VOrient,
6th ed. 775-776.

7. Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, 18; The
Metrical Grammar and Theodorus ibn Kuni, Scholion
1:113.

8. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 168.

9. The Book of Rhetorics, Treatise 1, Chapter 26.

10. The Dialogue, Treatise 4, Question 12.

CHAPTER II- The General Characteristics of
Syriac Literature

1. The most extensive treatment of the story of
Ahiqar was made byj. Rendel Harris in his introduction
to The Story of Ahiqar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic,
Armenian, Ethiopic, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Ver-
sions By F. C. Conybeare, J. Rendel Harris and Agnes
Smith Lewis, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: 1913). For an Arabic
translation of the original Aramaic text see Gregorius
Bulus Bahnam, Ahiqar al-Hakim (Ahiqar the Sage),
(Baghdad, 1976.), published posthumously, (ed.)

2. The date of composition of the book of Tobit is
uncertain, but from internal evidence seems to be
much later than that which Barsoum assigns, (ed.)

3. What the Eastern Syrians translated from the
Pahlavi (Arabic Pahlawi) was very little, such as Kalila wa
Dimna and the Pseudo-story of Alexander the Great.
*The writer must mean the translation of Pahlavi writ-
ings (into Syriac) and not into Arabic because Kalila wa
Dimna was translated into Arabic by ibn al-Muqaffa. On
the transmission of Arab sciences in Spain see Charles
Homer Haskins, Studies in the History of Mediaeval Sci-
ences, 2nd edition (New York: 1960). (ed.)

CHAPTER HI- The Centers of Learning

1. The author does not seem to count the 126 years
from the establishment of this school in the middle of
the third century, butfrom 363 when itbecame famous,
(ed.)

CHAPTER IV- Syriac Libraries

1 . The unpublished biography of St. Simon Zaytuni.

2. The Book of Life m Basibrina. See Chapter 15 on this
topic.

3. See his life-story in the Biographies of the Eastern
Ascetics, by John of Asia (or Ephesus), no. 35.

4. The reference is to j. B. Chabot, Documenta ad
Oirgines Monophysitarum Illustranda, (Paris: 1907-1933).
(ed.)

191

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

5. Unfortunately, Barsoum does not indicate the
date at which this monastery and its library were estab-
lished; in any case, they can hardly have antedated the
libraries of ancient Egyptian monarchs. (ed.)

6. For more information on how books were ac-
quired from this library for the British Museum, see
preface to William Wright, Catalogue of Syriac Manu-
scripts at the British Museum?) (London: 1872). (ed.)

CHAPTER V- Syriac Calligraphy

1 . See Henri Pognon, Inscriptions Semitiques de la Syrie.
(Paris: 1908). (ed.)

2. Among the Syriac scripts which had been specifi-
cally used in some countries are the following: 1) The
Escholitha, which is the light script of books and compo-
sition. It is also called the circular. Its counterpart is the
script of the Warraqin (copyists), according to Ibn al-
Nadim (d. 987), al-Fihrist, p. 18. 2) The fine. 3) The
disjoined. 4) The Ukary or Uqhary, used by Zebina the
monk in 1227, as mentioned in a historical treatise
(preserved in our library) written in the fourteenth
century. 5) The doubled, or dual. 6) The Jamary,
attributed to the Jamra Monastery, built by a Nestorian
ascetic about the year 670. It is mentioned in the Book of
Chastity by Yeshodnah al-Basri, ed. Bedjan, p. 506. See
also the anonymous history which has been discovered
in Seert, pp. 550, 586, 587. These scripts have been
mentioned in a book preserved in the library of the
Chaldean Patriarchate in Mosul (No. 111). Both
Chaldean and Nestorian communities have today a
special script known as the Eastern script. The Greek
Malkites in Syria and Palestine had a script distinct from
both the Western and Eastern scripts, but close to the
Estrangelo. It has been out of use for three centuries,
since they translated their ritual books into Arabic and
renounced Syriac.

3. One can accept this statement only with reserva-
tions, for the earlier Roman codices extant in Martial’s
time may likewise be classified as “books.” (ed.)

4. According to another theory, paper was manufac-
tured under the Umayyads. See al-Fihrist, p. 32.

5. John of Ephesus, Biographies of Eastern Saints, ed.
Land in Anecdota Syriaca^ 2: 209-210. [Also translated
into Latin by Van Douwen and Land, Commentarii de
beads Orientalibus et Historiaeeccles. fragment a, Amsterdam:
1889.] (ed.)

6. Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesiastical History, 1: 417. [About
the translation and publication of this book see above
Chapter twenty-two on Books of General History. ] (ed.)

7. The library of the Syrian Monastery of St. Mark,
(ed.)

8. A monastery in Lebanon belongs to the Roman
Catholic Syrians, (ed.)

9. By Nineveh, Bar Hebraeus does not mean the
ancient capital of the Assyrians, but the diocese of
Nineveh, which since the sixth century A.D., covered

the present city of Mosul and its environs, (ed.)

10. Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesiastical History, 2: 329.

11. Died February 27, 1947. (ed.)

12. This editor labored long and hard to locate this
MS at the Boston Museum, but to no avail. Contacting
the Boston Museum as well as the Public Library of
Boston through a friend, he could find no trace of
Syriac manuscripts. Finally, this editor discovered that
this and many other Syriac manuscripts are preserved in
the Houghton Library of Harvard University, (ed.)

CHAPTER VI- Morphology and Grammar

1. In the erratum on p. 231 of the Arabic text the
author corrected the name into Dionysius Thrax (fl.
100 B.C.), the author of the first Greek grammar, (ed.)

2. Jacob bar Zubi, a Nestorian monk of Beth Ququ,
Hidyab (near the present site of Arbil, in Iraq). He
flourished about the end of the 12th century and the
beginning of the 13th. He was a grammarian and wrote
small and large books of grammar. He also wrote met-
rical homilies. He was the teacher of Severus Jacob bar
Shabbo. See W. Wright, Syriac Literature, 258-259. (ed.)

3. The diacritical points in Syriac fuhome are either
semantic or related to meaning. Those pertaining to
meaning are more than forty in number. Each one is
resembled by one or more dots fixed at the end of the
word to indicate the different inflections of the voice
while reading. They were mainly used in reading the
Bible. These diacritical points were lost long ago and are
notin use. See Mgr. David, GrammairedelaLangueArameenne
(Arabic), Mosul, 1896, 304-315. Also J. B. Segal, The
Diacritical Points and the Accent in Syriac, 1953. (ed.)

4. Abd Yeshu ibn Mubarak (in Syriac, “Bar Brikha”),
famous Nestorian writer, theologian and poet. He was
nicknamed the “Subawi,” not because he was born in
Suba (Nisibin) , but because he was metropolitan of that
city from 1285-1290. He died in 1318 . He left many
works, such as the Compendium of the Commentary on
the Old and New Testaments, the Collection of Synodi-
cal canons, the Councils, the mysteries of Greek phi-
losophy, the book of ecclesiastical decisions and can-
ons, the Pearl of Faith, and an anthology called the
Paradise of Eden. In his anthology, which he unnecessar-
ily filled with pretentious rhymed prose, the Subawi
tried to imitate the rhythmic prose (Maqamat) of al-
Hariri, to show that the Syriac language is no less rich
and flexible than the Arabic. However, he exaggerated
this rhythmic prose more than al-Hariri. See Georg
Graf, Geschichte der Chrisllichen Arabischen Literatur, 214-
216 ; Mgr . David, Grammaire de la Langue Arameenne, p.
677; Wright, 2: 285-288 ; Baumstark, 323-325; and Duval,
404 and Rev. Albert Abouna, Adab al-Lugha al-Aramiyya
( Literature of the Aramaic Nation), (Beirut, 1970),
445-452. (ed.)

CHAPTER VII- General Rules of the Language

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and Dictionaries

1. The Boston Museum which the author refers to is
now the Houghton Library of Harvard University, (ed.)

2. Except ancient dictionaries, the Syrians today rely
on three modem dictionaries: at- Lubab, by the Maronite
priest Gabriel Qirdahi, written between 1887-1891 ; Kanz
at- Lugha al-Suryaniyya (The Treasure of the Syriac
Language), by the Chaldean Bishop Tuma Odo, 1897;
and Dalit al-Raghibin (The Guide to Those Desirous for
Knowledge), by the Chaldean Bishop Jacob Awgayn
Manna, 1900.

3. W. Wright erroneously thought that this work is in
seven treatises. See A. Baumstark, Geschichte der Syrischen
Literatur, 278. (ed.)

4. The author refers to Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus al-
Mantiqi. For details on the translations and publication
of the Arabic translation of Aristotle’s Rhetoric by Abu
Bishr, see GeorgGraf, Geschichte der ChristlichenArabischen
Literatur, 2: the Vatican City, 1960. See also Abd al-
Rahman Badawi, Farm al-Shir (Cairo, 1953). (ed. )

5. We have also several communications sent by
patriarchs to Malabar in India, or they were written by
some clergy of that country dating from 1754 to the
present time. Most of these letters are predominantly
trite and artless. The best of them are the letters of the
Chorepiscopus Matta Konat (d. 1927) and the priest
Yaqub (Jacob) Saka (d. 1931.

6. Madrash, a church poetical hymn written in differ-
ent metrical forms, created by Bar Daysan (d. 222) and
later developed by St. Ephraim (d. 373) , who increased
their number to five hundred, (ed.)

7. Al-Shaykh Khamis Qirdahi, a Nestorian priest of
Arbil and a younger contemporary of Bar Hebraeus. He
was also a contemporary to Abd Yeshu Subawi, and as a
poet he was probably considered better with regard to
style and lucidity than the Subawi. He left a medium-
sized anthology, containing a few poems advocating his
Nestorian theological doctrine. Of his masterpieces are
his poems on the Annunciation of Mary and the Ascen-
sion of the Savior, and a philosophical poem on the
Separation of the Soul from the body. He died in 1350.
For a specimen of his poetry, see P. D. Cardahi, Liber
Thesauri, Arabic and Syriac, Rome: 1875, 59. See also A.
Baumstark, Geschichte der syrischen Literatur^ Bon n , 1922,
321-322; William Wright, Syriac Literature, London, 1894,
287; and Rubens Duval, La Litleralure Syriaque, Paris,
1899, 403, and Albert Abouna, 437- 440. (ed.)

CHAPTER VIII- Themes of Syriac Poetry

1 . Professor Nicholson translates hamasaas fortitude;
however, this editor believes that heroism is more ex-
pressive of the term than is fortitude. R.A. Nicholson, A
Literary History of the Arabs, London: 1907, 129. (ed.).

2. Nasib was the traditional beginning theme of the

Arabic ode, according to Professor Nicholson, Ibid., 77-
78. (ed.).

CHAPTER IX- Categories of Syrian Poets

1. The classification of the Syrian poets into four
categories tends to be confusing, especially in the ab-
sence of a clearly defined principle for making the
division. In the opening paragraph, Barsoum mentions
“the genius, the gifted craftsman, those who frequently
combine the qualities of each, the mediocre poet, the
later ones, and finally, the scribbler of verse.” It is not
clear from the text just how these six kinds are to be
grouped into four categories, (ed.)

2. In the erratum at the end of the book, the author
placed the death of Bar Paul in the second decade of the
ninth century, (ed.)

3. This editor has been unable to identify this com-
poser of pieces of poetry, (ed.)

4. The collection of yearly homilies in Basibrina.

5. Written in 1724 at Basibrina.

6. St. Mark’s Library in Jerusalem MS. 156, dated
1467.

7. Commented on by the monk Yeshu of Basibrina.

8. To be found in Basibrina copied by the monk
Malke Saqo.

9. In the village of Arbo. Finished in the 19th century.

10. It was the custom of monks, especially, in big
monasteries to recite sughilhs at meal times. This custom
persisted until this day, but instead of the sughiths, a
monk or a cleric usually reads chapters of the Holy
Bible, (ed.)

1 1. In Diyarbakr.

12. Birmingham MS 338, Berlin MS 315 from the
letters G to T (of the Syriac alphabet).

CHAPTER X- Versions of the Holy Bible

1 . The statement in the text was not quite right The
first column of the Hexapla was in Hebrew not Greek,
(ed.)

2. Chapter 6, part 4 of the last treatise.

3. Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (about 860) mentioned
in his book Religion and State, pp. 67, 81 , 84 that Marcus
(Mark) has translated the Syriac Pshitto of the Old
Testament. We know nothing about this Mark and his
translation.

CHAPTER XI- The Diatessaron

1 . This chapter in the original comes at the end (pp.
639-640) . The author has asked that it be considered as
chapter eleven, (ed.)

2. Some critics are of the opinion that it was revised
for the last time at the beginning of the fifth century.

3. Only fifteen lines remained of the Diatessaron in

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Greek and an insignificant portion in Syriac.

4. His letter ad algesium.

5. See 123 and 130.

6. al-Durar al-Nafisa (The Precious Pearls) by this
author, 244-247. E. R. Hayes, L’ Ecole d’ Edesse (Paris,
1930), 42-63. Duval, La Litterature Syriaque, 1907, 37-38.
Baumstark, pp. 19-21; Chabot, 20; Pierre Batiffol, La
Litterature Grecque (Paris, 1898), 88-90; the Compendium,
of the Patrologia by Tixeront, 52-55. Duchesne, Ancient
Church History, 1: 1 and 211-212 and 2:. 61 2. The Four
Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the Sinaitic Palimp-
sest by the late Robert L. Bensly, Rendel Harris, and
Crawford Burkitt with an Introduction by Agnes Smith
Lewis, 5-6, The Arabic Diatessaron published by the
monk Marmarji, 8-11, and 87-89 of the introduction
and 1-6 of the Appendix in which the editor doubted its
translation by Ibn al-Tayyib because of its philological
and grammatical mistakes.

CHAPTER XU- Syriac Orthography

1. MS 58 Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

2. British Museum MS 40.

3. Biblioteca Vaticana MS 13.

4. British Museum MS 24.

5. Cambridge, add. MS 1903.

CHAPTER XIII- Commentaries on the Old and
New Testaments

1 . In the second part you will see the centers in which
the transcription of these commentaries was made.

CHAPTER XIV- Apocryphal Writings

1. See Mihaly Kmosko, Patrologia Syriaca, 2:1319-
1360.

2. The original title of this book is The Succession of the
Tribes and the Cave of Treasures. It consists of 120 pages.
According to Orientalists this book was eitherwritten in
Edessa or Mesopotamia in the sixth century. Its essence
is that when Adam was expelled from Paradise he
resorted to a cave in a neighboring mountain. In this
cave he deposited the gold, frankincense and myrrh
which he carried with him from Paradise. In this cave he
and the Patriarchs that followed him were buried after
the flood. His remains as well as the gold, frankincense
and myrrh were carried by Noah to the Arc. After
Noah’s death Shem and Melchizedek deposited these
relics in the middle of the earth at Golgotha (Calvary).
The story goes on to describe the events until the time
of the Passion of Christ. The book was heavily quoted by
the monk of Zuqnin in his history, vol. 1, pp. 6-9 and
after. It was published by Bezold in Leipzig in 1883,
translated into German. Bezold also published an Ara-
bic translation drawn from four manuscripts, while Mrs.

Gibson published another Arabic translation different
from the mentioned text in the Semitic studies, vol. 8,
1901. See also British Museum MSS 25875 and 7199,
16th century; Sachau MS 131 dated 1862; Vatican 164
dated 1702; Seert MSS 141 dated 1239, 113, 18th cen-
tury; Urmiah MS 90 dated 1594 and Basibrina. Also,
Birmingham MS 518 dated 1487, MS 567 dated 1744,
MS 355 dated 1791, MS 258 dated about 1570, MS 11
about 1702. The latter manuscript contains 72 pages
only, (ed.)

3. See Ceriani, Monumenta. Mihaly Kmosko also pub-
lished the translation of the Apocalypse of Baruch from
the Greek into Syriac with the Latin translation of the
Epistle of Baruch.

4. J. E. Rahmani, Studia Syriaca sue collectio
documenlarum hactenus indedilorum. Sharfa, 1904. (ed.)

5. W. Wright. Contributions to the Apocryphal Literature
of the New Testament. 1865. (ed.)

5. See Wright, Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, 2 vol-
umes, 1871. (ed.)

CHAPTER XV- Semi-Apocryphal Literature

1. See Al-Durar al-Nafisa, pp. 76 and 197 by this
author. For more information of the Doctrini of Addai
see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Book I, xxxii and
William Cureton, Ancient Syriac Documents (London,
1864), 24-35. (ed.)

CHAPTER XVI- Church Rituals

Section one-Church Music

1 . The erudite Anton of Takrit states that “the reason
why St. Ephraim composed spiritual songs and hymns is
that Bar Daysan had composed songs with exquisite
tunes in which he implied statements which would
destroy the Orthodox faith and morals. These songs
appealed greatly to the credulousyouth. In opposition,
St. Ephraim composed songs and sacred hymns which
combated them. Hence, the origin of the Holy Church
music and chanting. In like manner St. Gregory the
Theologian composed his poems to refute the Arian
heresy and oppose the Caesar Julian the Apostate who
prevented the Christians from reading the poetry of the
heathen Greeks. However, the fathers of the Church
were unable to prevent the people from singing and
chanting after they had heard them so often from the
deceivers.” Bar Salibi also states that “Mar Severus com-
posed the manilhs in answering back to poets and the
songs of Sostius the Greek. Mar Iyawannis (John) also
composed the stikhare in refutation of the Arian songs
by which they snared the gullible.” Therefore, in this
manner the canons found their way into the Church.

2. From the 1 6 th century or earlier the Syrian Church
used eightecclesiastical modes known as the “okteochos”
(in Syriac, “ikhdias”). Today these modes do not indi-

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

cate scalar patterns, butmelody types. See H. G. Farmer,
“Syrian Music,” in Groves Dictionary of Music and Musi-
cians, edited by Eric Blom (New York, 1955), 3, 254.
(ed.)

3. These terms are vague; this editor has been unable
to identify their source or implication, (ed.)

4. In his book Dauiat al-Qusus (The Call of the Priests^,
Jacob of Mardin comments on the eight melodies by
stating that “the first and fifth melody are for festivities,
the third and seventh for sorrow, the fourth and eighth
for the struggle of the martyrs, the second and sixth for
humility,” see Majmu Usui al-Din by al-Rais al-Shaykh
Mutamin al-Dawla Abi Ishaq ibn al-Fadl ibn al-Assal the
Copt, chapter 49, 216. This book Dawat al-Qusus is lost
to us except four odes on the Divine Wine which were
found in Beirut I think the author of this book belongs
to the twelfth century. His above statement, however, is
questionable. The fifth melody is used for fasting and
repentance while the fourth which is identical with the
fifth is also used for the Feast of the Annunciation, the
second and sixth are stimulating and activating while
the first is specifically used for the Epiphany and the
second for the Transfiguration.

Section Two-The Regular Weekday Service Book

1. The Shhimo, or Ishhim was published by Alphonse
Mingana, Part One of the Studies of Woodbrooke,
1927, 64.

Section Three-Lectionaries

1. Tur Abdin remained an entirely Syriac-speaking
area, (ed.)

2 . Volume 1: 2 63.

3. Ecclesiastical History * 1: 275.

4. Clement Huart, A History of Arab Literature, 280.

5. He was a Christian who embraced Islam and wrote
his book.

6. See the Catalogueoi the Library of the Patriarchate
in Egypt, No. 1 1 and 45 by Marcus Sumayka Pasha, 1 942.

7. We have overlooked the translation 1 , p. 275 of the
for Gosepls by the bishop Abd Yeshu al-Subawi in 1 300,
written in a forced, rhymed prose which rendered it
poor and incoherent Copies of it are found in Mosul
and other places. In his introduction the translator
mentioned another previous translation by Abu al-Faraj
ibn al-Tayyib, Yeshu Yab ibn Malkun in 1256 (MSS 1 and
2 in al-Sharfa Monastery in Lebanon), and al-Shaykh
Ibn Dad Yeshu.

Section Four-Liturgical Books

1. In his letter to deacon Guriyya, of the village of
Beth Naar near Edessa (the History of Michael the
Great, 2:481).

2. To the critics, both liturgies of Basilius and

Chrysostom used by the Greeks, particularly the second
one should not be ascribed to these two doctors of the
Church except in their fundamental parts. They were
revised by scholars who came after them. Some believe
that the liturgy of Chrysostom is the liturgy of the
Church of Antioch which he took to Constantinople
and was, therefore, ascribed to him.

3. More correctly, it is the composition of Aaron, as
ismentioned by some copies, who I thinkwasoneofthe
bishops of the East who lived between the seventh and
ninth centuries. Perhaps he is the bishop who has been
described in the hymn of the East as being very diligent
in reciting the Psalms day and night.

4. It begins thus, “OLord, the life and light of all.” In
some copies it is attributed to Philoxenus of Mabug and
counted as his third liturgy.

5. In his Liturgiarum Orientalism, (ed.)

6. Sedra is the second part of the supplicatory prayer,
usually read at the time the priest proceeds to the Altar,
(ed.)

7. William Wright counts him asjohn the First. See
his Short History of Syriac Literature, p. 139. (ed.)

8. In a liturgy at the Monastery of St. Malke.

9. The writer means the Maphrianate See of Takrit
which was under the jurisdiction of the Great See of
Antioch, (ed.)

10. Published by Julius Press in Pampakoda, Kerala,
India.

Section Five-Service Books for Sudays for the Whole
Year

1. The Week of the White, extends from Easter
Sunday to the New or Low Sunday. It was called the week
of the white for historical considerations, dating back to
the early Christian church. According to an old practice
of the church, the neophytes intending to embrace
Christianity usually went through a period of prepara-
tion and meditation, after which they were baptized on
the Thursday of Passion Week (the Thursday of the
Passover), and anointed with holy oil shortly after the
consecration of the holy chrism, which took place on
the same day. During the whole week following the
Sunday of Easter, the neophytes daily received the holy
Eucharist while attired with white garments. Hence the
name “The week of the white.” (ed.)

2. Jacob of Bartulli, The Book of Treasures, Part 2,
Chapter 39.

3. Hudhro, a Syriac word meaning circle or course.
In this context it means the books which contain the
whole services for Sunday, feasts and fasts for the circle
or the course of the whole year, (ed.)

4. Basilica is an anthem sung when Christian kings or
emperors are present at the service. See Payne-Smith,
Syriac-English Dictionary, Oxford, 1903, 48. (ed.)

5. See the Beth Gaz in Diyarbakr translated by Patri-
arch Pilate in 1560 when he was still a monk. It is now in

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the possession of Deacon Tuma.

Section Six-The Service Books of Principal Feasts
and the Festivals of Saints

1. On the first Sunday of September.

2. The Christian feasts are of two kinds: the first are
those in which attending worship and abstaining from
work are required. This kind is specifically restricted to
well-known major feasts. The other kind is the com-
memoration, Dhikran, a Syriac term commonly known
as Tadhkar or Tidhkar, in which attending the service is
required, but one need not abstain from work. Most of
the saints’ feasts are of this class.

Section Seven-Service Books of the Lent and Passion
Week

1. The beginning of Lent is marked by the vespers
observance of the evening preceding the first Sunday,
(ed.)

2 The service book of the Tahira (The Virgin Mary)
Church in Mosul was completed in 1301 A.D. and at the
Church of Mar Sarkis in Qaraqosh The reason the
writer inserted thisstatementabout the poem of Lazarus
bar Sobto concerning the consecration of the Chrism,
which might seem irrelevant to the subject, is because
the Chrism is usually consecrated on Thursday of Pas-
sion Week according to the tradition of the Syrian
Church, (ed.)

Section Eight- Husoyos (Supplicatory Prayers) for
Sundays, Feasts, Lent and Passion Week and Other
Occasions

1. See earlier notes concerning manuscripts located
at Boston, (ed.)

Section Nine-The Orders of Baptism, the Benedic-
tion of Marriage, the Holy Unction and of Repentance

1. British Museum MSS 14495 and 14499.

2. St Mark’s library, MS 113; Bibliotheque Nationale
MS 110.

Section Ten- Order of the Offices of Ordinations
and the Administration of Sacraments by the Clergy

1 . St Mark’s library MS 1 1 3, Bibliotheque Nationale,
MS 110.

2. From a Beth Gaz in the British Museum MS 1 7232,
written in 1210.

3. Also called “Sontamisa;” a copy of which is pre-
served at our Church in Hafar, a village near Hims.

4. St. Mark’s library, MS 118, from which our copy is
taken.

5. This should read five instead of four. See below p.

232 of the Arabic version, (ed.)

6. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 113.

7. Jerusalem Library MS 109; also in the library of the
Edessans in Aleppo.

8. Zafaran Library MS 220.

9. Jerusalem Library, MS 26.

Section Eleven- Service Book for Principal Feasts

1 . The order of Forgiveness occurs on the Saturday of
Annunciation, according to the service book transcribed
by the Patriarch Basilius in 1443. See manuscript 23 of
the Jerusalem Library and the Madhadhan (Service
Book of Feasts) transcribed by the Monk Malke Saqu in
1484 in the Monastery of Mar Eugene (Awgayn) which
ends with a homily on Love given by the bishop.

2. Fol. 16a of MS 14494 mentions the order for the
consecration of water on the Epiphany, but does not
give the name of any author. See W. Wright, Catalogue of
Syrian Manuscripts, British Museum, I: 21 7. (ed.)

3. See the Service Book of Feasts in the Zafaran
Library MS 212, called Madhadhan in Syriac and
Hirmologion in Greek. There are two copies of this
book according to the Byzantine rite in the Library of
Mount Sinai, one of them (MS 40) written on vellum,
and the other one (MS 64) on paper, dated 1255.

4. Preserved at the Syrian Church in Cairo.

Section Twelve- Funeral Service Books

1 . See Anton of Takrit. On the Knowledge of Rhetorics,
part 2, treatise 5.

2. British Museum MS 14525, also SeverusofBartulli,
The Cave of Treasure, 2 p. 39.

3. Boston, MS 4013.

4. British Museum MS 14502.

5. Boston MS 4016. Also Jerusalem MS 130 which
states: “According to the new revision made byjacob of
Edessa.”

6. Anton of Takrit. On the Knowledge of Rhetorics, part
2, treatise 5.

7 Ani was the capital of Armenia (A.D. 1000). It is
situated east of the city of Kars. In discussing the events
of the year A.D. 1063 Bar Hebraeus relates in his
Chronography (p. 242) that Ani had 700,000 houses and
1,000 churches. It was destroyed by an earthquake in
1319. See S. H. Sami, Qamus al-Alam al-Turki, 1, p. 447
and Pero, The Geographical Dictionary, 49.

Section Thirteen- Choral Books

1. Patriarch Aphram Rahmani, Studia Syriaca, 3:1 7
quoting Vatican MS 89 which had been moved to the
Borgian Museum.

2. Birmingham, MS 321.

3. The Quqaye were the songs or hymns composed by
a potter who, while spinning his wheel amused himself

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

by extemporizing church songs. Most famous among
these potters was Simon, who was discovered and en-
couraged byjacob of Edessa to continue the composi-
tion of songs. Simon died in 514. (ed.)

4. Jerusalem MS 60.

5. The Woodbrooke Library in Birmingham, MS 37.

6. The Book ofManiths (anthem) in the library of the
Church of al-Tahira (The Virgin Mary) in Mosul, Iraq.

7. A sixteenth century Beth Gaz written in Mardin.

8. According to a Beth Gaz at St. George’s Church in
Damascus written in 1564.

9. Birmingham MS 321.

10. These maniths are called in Greek oktoechos. Four
old Syriac copies of them are preserved in the Mount
Sinai Library MS 25 written on vellum in an Estrangelo
script, while MSS 72, 73 and 79 are written on paper in
the ordinary Malkite script.

11. There are six copies of these in the Mt. Sinai
Library, five of which are old (written on vellum in the
Estrangelo script, MSS 10, 22, 27, 36 and 44). A sixth
copy, written on paper in ordinary script, is dated 1301 .
It contains a service book, canons and unyone (an-
thems).

Section Fourteen- Prayer Books of Priests and Monks
(Breviaries)

1 . Zafaran Library, MS 220

2 . The Library of St. Matthew’s Monastery. Collec-
tion of Ascetic Literature.

3. At the Lazarus Monastery in Habsnas, Tur Abdin.

4. The Church of al-Tahira (the Virgin Mary) in
Mosul. A copy of this book of prayer is in the Sharfa
Monastery MS 112 (transcribed by Maphrian Simon of
Banimim with marginal notes, while he was a monk in
Mar Abhai’s Monastery in 1696) .

Section Fifteen- The Book of Life

1. World War I. (ed.)

Section Sixteen-Calendar of Festivals for the Whole
Year

1. British Museum MS 12150.

2. From a fanqith (service book) in the Church of St.
Moses in Damascus, transcribed in 1537.

3. Birmingham MS 321.

4. The Church library in Amid and the Library of St.
Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem come under the juris-
diction of the writer who was at the time of the writing
of this book the Patriarch, (ed.)

5. Brit. Museum MS OR 1 01 7, and Bar Hebraeus, The
Lamp of the Sanctuaries at our library in Hims.

6. This work, entitled Everlasting Calendar of the Ortho-
dox Churchby Gabriel Boyajy, (New York, College Point,
June 1914). (ed.)

Section Seventeen-The Oldest Manuscripts on Which
We Depended in Our Research

1 After the village of Beth Khudayda (present-day
Qaraqosh) in northern Iraq.

CHAPTER XVII-Theology

1. The Syrians had no access to the Latin works of
Roman scholars and thus knew nothing of the book of
Tertullian and Augustine, and what reached them of
the works of Ambrose, Rufinus, Jerome (Hieronymus)
and Leo came through Greek translations. We know of
no Syrian scholar who knew Latin except the sage
Theodore of Antioch (d. about 1240).

2. Published byj. B. Chabot in 1908.

3. In addition we have theological writings in Arabic
such as the Apology for the Trisagion by Habib Abu Raita
of Takrit in 821. Also we have many treatises on the
Trinity and monotheism by Yahya ibn Adi (d. 973), the
book entitled al-Murshid by Abu Nasr al- Takriti (d.
1071). His brother, Abu al-Fadl ibn Jarir, wrote two
books on priesthood and the Eucharist which have
been lost to us. From the pen of Daniel ibn al-Hattab (d.
1382) we have two books: Usui al-Din and Tafsir Dustur
al-Iman. All these books were written in a classical
language and are preserved in the libraries of Paris,
Leiden, the Vatican, Jerusalem, Egypt, the library at
Hims and the Zafaran Monastery. Of the works of later
scholars with a mediocre style we have the lengthy book
of Catechism by Maphrian Shukr Allah ibn al-Qasabji (d.
1764) and al-Iliqad al-Sahih ft Tajassud al-Masih x by the
Bishop Jurjis al-Halabi (d. 1773) copies of which are
preserved in the library at Hims, the library ofjerusalem
and of Aqra.

CHAPTER XVI II -The Pseudo-Work of Dionysius
the Areopagite

1. Timothy, bishop of Ephesus. See W. Wright, Cata-
logue of Syriac Manuscripts, 2: 501, para. 5. (ed.)

2. Wright, Ibid., 2: 499-501. (ed.)

3. The British Museum MS 2306 was transcribed in
1859 not in 1547 as D. S. Margoliouth has erroneously
thought. See also Birmingham MS 24 dated 1908.

4. Other copies are preserved in the Vatican MS 107
dated 861, Brit. Mus. MSS 12152 dated 837; 14599 and
14540 written in the 9th century.

5. Tixeront, The History of Dogmas in the Ancient Chris-
tian Age. 1919, 3rd ed., 3: 202-203.

6. The Divine Names, paras. 1 , 5 and 6.

7. Ibid, para. 13:3.

8. Ecclesiastical Hierarchies 5-6.

9. The Ninth Treatise: 1.

10. These chapters may be found in the formerly
mentioned copies of this book.

197

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1 1. Brit. Mus. 2370. The correct number of this MS is
Add. 22370. See W. Wright Catal. 2, 500. (ed.)

12. Tixeront, 3: 6.

13. See B. Corderius in Migne, Opera Dionyssii, i, 88 in
which he states Totam fere doctrinam theologican ex
purissimis Dionysii fontibus hansisse.” The full title of
this work which has been translated and edited by
Corderius is Opera S. Dionyssii Areopagile cum scholiis S.
Maximi et paraphrasi Pachymerae, Antwerp, 1634. (ed.)

14. Tixeront, Ibid.., 134 quoting the Divine Names
1:4.

15. See Batiffol, La Litterature Grecque, 1901, 329. Also,
Tixeront, 3: 1 34 and by thes same author The Compen-
dium of Patralogia, 1920, 381, and Bardy, Litterature
Grecque, 1928, 176.

CHAPTER XIX-Ecclesiastical Apologetics

1. Aristides, The Apology on Behalf of the Christians,
edited byj. R. Harris, Cambridge: 1891. (ed.)

CHAPTER XX-Ecclesiastical Jurisprudence and
Civil Law

1. The Rev. S. G. F. Perry published the Acts of the
Second Council of Ephesus in 1867 not in 1875 under
the tide of An Ancient Syriac Document, purporting to be the
second in its chief features of the Second Synod of Ephesus.
Oxford, 1867. (ed.)

2. MS 8, Birmingham contains a new copy tran-
scribed from MS 224 of Zafaran. Another new copy
transcribed from the former two manuscripts is at our
Library.

3. Preserved in the Church of Basibrina.

4. The copy of the canons in the Monastery of Mar
Hananya enacted byjohn was transcribed in the middle
of the sixteenth cen tury and attached with the old book.

5. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS 62.

6. The writer is referring back to the unique copy of
1204 preserved at his library in Hims. (ed.)

7. Zafaran MS 12.

8. An abridgement and commentary upon some of
the canons of Bar Hebraeus’ Hudoye was made by
Rabban Daniel bar Isa. Daniel also abridged the whole
work in seventeen chapters written in classical Arabic in
1384. (This misplaced note, in fact, belongs to the
former passage in which the author discussed the Hudoye
of Bar Hebraeus.) (ed.)

In the Synod of the Zafaran Monastery held in 1521,
Patriarch Abd Allah I, made a few canons in Arabic. Also
in the Synod held at the Monastery of Mar Matta in
1930, Patriarch Elias III, issued ordinances and some
canons.

CHAPTER XXI-Ascetic Books

1. The author seems to have misn umbered these
treatises by skipping Nos. 16 and 18. The original order
of the enumeration has been kept without change by
the editor, (ed.)

2. In his La Litterature Grecque, Batiffol states in page
312 that Epiphanius, metropolitan of Cyprus ordained
Philon as bishop of Carpasia in the island of Cyprus
before 382. Philon was very pious and a powerful orator.
He expounded the book Song of Songs and died before
394. Could he then be the author of this book?

3. We have in Syriac three treatises and seven epistles
respectively by Macarius of Egypt and Macarius of Alex-
andria. Scholars deny the work ascribed to the latter
while Kmosko is of the opinion that the epistles were not
written by Antonius but by Ammonius.

4. The Library of Mount Sinai has six very old manu-
scripts written in the Estrangelo on vellum, two of which
only are written in a beautiful handwriting. These are
MS 14 containing the questions of monks by Macarius
of Egypt, MS 23 containing the Book of the Egyptian
Ascetics, MSS 24 and 46 containing dialogues and homi-
lies by the Egyptian Fathers transcribed in the ninth
century, and MSS 26 and 33 containing the book of
Anba Isaiah on Solitaries and Ascetics. See also the Vatican
Library MS 122 dated 796, MS 121 dated 1576 and MS
123; Brit. Mus. MS 827 and 853; the Jerusalem Library
MS 1 80; the Zafaran library MS 50; the Monastery of Mar
Matta MS 16 transcribed around 1420; Cambridge MS
2019 and Birmingham MS 68. In 1913 Kmosko pub-
lished sixteen epistles by Ammonius while Francois Nau
published twenty-two Syriac leaves and others in Greek
containing some of Ammonius’ Consuls, dictums and
information in 1914.

5. MS 121 Vatican contains fifteen treatises and a
letter by Ammonius.

6. Mount Sinai MS 16.

7. Vatican MS 123 transcribed in 1223. Also, MS of
the Church of Inhil in Tur Abdin dated 1208.

8. Zafaran MS 50, Mar Matta MS 6, and Birmingham
MS 86.

9. The Mountain of Masius which overlooks Nisibin.

10. The Chaldean Library in Mosul MS 96. Imper-
fect, written on vellum in the eleventh century. Also
Vatican MS 122 and the Monastery of St. Matthew MS 16
which is a thick volume, written in a firm and elegant
handwriting, it contains a good portion of the book of
Anba Isaiah, the letters of Eugrius and Isidore, two
letters by Yuhanna and Nilus the ascetics, discourses by
Macarius, Gregory, Yuhanna the Apocalyptic, Mark,
Sergius, Moses of Abyssinia, Shanudin, Thomas, and
Iyawannis, abbot of the convent of Mount Sinai, the
dialogue by Palladius and a dialogue between a pupil
and a teacher on virtuous conduct and types of virtue.

11. Mount Sinai Library MS 29, Vatican MS 126,

198

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Zafaran MS 162, as well as MSS at the two churches of
Inhil and Hisn Mansur dated 1159. Also Cambridge MS
2019 containing selections from Palladius.

12. See Part Two of this book for a description of
these five works.

13. The monk Paul Bedjan published the book of
Sahdunaand Isaac of Nineveh in 1903 and 1904 respec-
tively.

14. Wright, Syriac Literature, 109. (ed.)

15. See Bedjan’s introduction to the book, 7. This
book was translated into English in 1923.

16. Fragments of this work can be found in the old
MS 14 ofMountSinai written on vellum in the Estrangelo
script

17. Bedjan, Introduction, p. 5.

18. Sharfa Catalogue MS 7/2, p. 379, dated 1453 or
sometime before this year.

19. Jerusalem, MS 182.

20. Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts, 1901, at the Con-
vent of the Greeks in Jerusalem. The MS 24 transcribed
in 1567and MS 59 entitled Mukhtasar Kitab al-Qiddis Mar
Ishaq (Isaac), in Arabic, translated (into Arabic) by the
deacon Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl. On p. 1 44 we read: “If the
vessels of precious perfume offers the person who
touches them the breath of their scent, how much
better it would be if my senses became directly per-
fumed by your spiritual sayings which guide the souls
and eliminate unhappiness. O you who aspires to soli-
tude because it brings man closer to the only cause of
everything and shuns tumultuous life which drives man
away from the person of God.”

21 . Synopsis of The Book of the Egyptian Monks and its
exposition by Philoxenus, the Syrian bishop of Mabug.
There is another copy in the library at Hims transcribed
in our own hand-writting in 1908 which was copied from
a Garshuni copy transcribed in 1597.

22. The Chaldean Library in Mosul, MS 99. Follow-
ing is the introduction written by one of their (N estorian )
scholars (who we believe is of the 14th century) to Bar
Hebraeus’ poem on the “Categories of the Perfect.” It
reads thus: “When I saw that the sovereign master and
King of Princes and scholars, lord of the learned and
savants, the great prince Shams al-Din Yusuf, may God
prolong his days, and magnify and elevate his position,
was enthusiastic to obtain the works of the blessed
Father and Saint, who is unique among the pioneer
learned men and the example of later scholars, Mar
Gregory the Maphrian, may God illuminate his grave, I
chose this his poem which contains the categories of
those who have attained the highest degree of perfec-
tion, adorned and edited its elegant contents and thus
served him (Shams al-Din) by adding this work to his
library.” Another work is the book of The Translator by
Iliyya ibn al-Sani, bishop of Nisibin transcribed by Abd
Yeshu bishop of the Jazira in 1547, which is preserved in
our library at Hims.

CHAPTER XXII- Books of General History

1 . See Wright, Catalogue ' x 2, 1 061 , on the Delineation of
the Habitable World by Ptolemy, (ed.)

2. Published in 1898 and 1899 in London and Paris.

3. According to Abd Yeshu al-Subawi, the seventh
century author Simon of Beth Garmai had translated
this history into Syriac, but it has been lost to us.

4. In the same collection Guidi published an accu-
rate compendium written by a Nestorian scholar about
680 in which he included unknown events connected
with the Sassanid era in Iraq or al-Ahwaz.

5. We believe that some of these anonymous
chronicles contained in the Chronica Minora were per-
haps the remainder of the chronicles of Cyrus, Guriyya
orjohn of Atharib.Theymayeven contain the chronicles
of David bar Moses and the deacon Simon of Nisibin.

6. Translated into English and published with the
Syriac text in two volumes by Ernest A. Wallis Budge.
Oxford University Press: 1932. For more information
on the publication and translation of this work consult
Budge’s introduction to this work, (ed.)

7. In 1663 Edward Pococke published the complete
Arabic text of al-Mukhtasar ft al- Duwal with a Latin
translation under the title Historia Compendiosa
Dynasliarum. It was also edited and twice published in
1890 by Rev. Anton Salhani in Beirut under the title
Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal; the Jesuit Catholic press:
1890. It was reprinted by the same press in Beirut in
1958. (ed.)

8. The complete Syriac text of this work was pub-
lished byj. S. Abbeloos and T. J. Lamy in three volumes.
Section I in two volumes and Section II in one volume
accompanied by a Latin translation and notes under the
tide Cregorii Barhebraei Chronicon Ecclesiasticum e Codice
Musei Britannici descriptum. Volumes 1 and 2 were pub-
lished in Louvain, 1872; Volume 3, Paris and Louvain,
1877. (ed.)

9. Mar Ignatius Aphram I Barsoum (author of this
book), (ed.)

CHAPTER XXIII- Private History

1. See W. Wright. Catalogue of Syriac MSS in the Brit.
Museum 2, 621 and 877. (ed.)

2. Published in the Zafaran Monastery in 1917.

3. Cambridge MS 82 DD3.

4. Biblioteca Vaticana, MS 387.

5. The library of the Sayyida Convent MS 130.

6. Zafaran, MS 51.

CHAPTER XXIV- Diverse Historical Tracts

1 . Zafaran MSS 244 and 245. Also the Book of Canons
in Basibrina (Tur Abdin).

199

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

2. Acta Sanctorum el Martyrum x Vol. 4, pp. 499-507.

3. British Museum, MSS 14629 and 17193.

4. Zafaran, MS 76.

5. British Museum MS 14602 published under Syriac
Documents.

6. A unique manuscript at our library in Hims.

7. Bibliotheque Nationale, MSS 27 and 297.

8. At the library in Hims copied from a manuscript at
Basibrina. The tracts of which we give no source are in
our library at Hims.

9. Zafaran, at the end of the Gospels manuscript no.
13.

10. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 27.

11. The Book of Life in Basibrina.

12. Library of Lyons, MS 1.

13. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 51.

14. Jerusalem Library, MS 27.

1 5. H. Pognon, Inscriptions Semitiques de la Syrie ( 1907) ,
p. 134.

16. Zafaran, MS 14.

17. Biblioteca Vaticana MS 37.

18. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 289.

19 Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 289, also published
in the journal Orient Chretien, 1911, p. 237. Also Jerusa-
lem Library MS 28.

20. Quoted from a book of Liturgies in Beirut.

21 Ibid.

22. Pognon, Ibid., pp. 187-189.

23. Basibrina.

24. From an inscription on a stone in Wayran Shahr
and the Monastery of Mar Jacob of Salh.

25. Cambridge, MS 82 DD3.

26. Medicio Laurenziana, MS 208.

27. Pognon. Inscriptions Semitiques, p. 135.

28. Jerusalem Library, MS 109.

29. Basibrina.

30. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 276.

31. Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 244.

32. Basibrina, The Book of Life.

33. Hughton Library, Harvard University, MSS 3976
and 3945.

34. The manuscripts in Basibrina.

35. The manuscripts in Midyat.

36. The manuscripts at the Monastery of the Cross.

37. The manuscripts of Tur Abdin and Amid.

38. Cambridge, MS 82 DD3. Medici Laurenziana,
Florence, MS 136.

39. Recorded at the end of the Gospels at our library
in Hims.

40. Cambridge, MS 82 DD3 and 2005.

41. Ibid.

42. Jerusalem, MS 169.

43. At our Library in Hims there are three copies
written in poor style which were compiled in 1809, 1838,
and 1877.

44. Birmingham, MS 480.

45. Manuscripts at Qaraqosh.

CHAPTER XXV- The Lives of Martyrs and
Saints

1 . Bar Hebraeus in his Hudoye, Part 5, Section 3, page
60, quoting Jacob of Edessa, states “the story of the
martyr, Mar Gurgis, which is cited as a narration, is full
of false allegations, irrational talk and falsehood which
is not proper for a martyr to pronounce. Christ who has
crowned them (martyrs) did not abandon them merely
to do so or that such a thing would befall them.”

Section One-The Lives of the Martyrs of Edessa,
Samosata and Persia

1. It is old and, as it seems, was composed in Edessa.

2. pp. 26 and 31.

Section Two- Lif e-Stories of the Martyrs of Palestine,
Mesopotamia, Armenia, Byzantium, Egypt and Yemen

1 . Called Qaraj Dagh today.

2. Zafaran, MS 118.

3. In another copy these two names are mentioned as
Stratonice and Silvanus.

4. Zafaran, MS 118.

5. To be found in a unique MS at Birmingham 535.

Section Three-Life-Stories of the Holy Apostles, Pa-
triarchs and Bishops

1. In a MS in Berlin.

2. These fifteen stories are to be found in the MS 1 17
Zafaran except for the story of Thomas the Apostle, the
stories of Jacob of Saruj, and the long stories of John of
Talla and Simon of Beth Arsham.

3. British Museum MS 14609.

4. Preserved in a MS at our Patriarchate library in
Hims transcribed in the ninth or tenth century.

5. Published by Nau after Brit. Mus. MS 14645.

6. Michael the Great, Chronicle, p. 388.

7. Michael the great, Ibid., p. 418.

8. Published by Nau after MS British Museum 1 4645.

9. A manuscript at our library in Hims.

10. Zafaran, MSS 117 and 118 copies of which are in
the library at Hims and in Diyarbakr.

11. Michael the Great, Ibid., p. 445.

12. At our Patriarchate library in Hims.

13. Published by Schell in Z.F.A. in 1897.

14. Michael the Great, Chronicle, p. 560.

Section Four-The Life-Stories of Ascetics, anchorites
and Others

1. Zafaran MS 117.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

200

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. At the Patriarchate library in Hims.

7. Zafaran, MS 117.

8. Michael the Great, Chronicle, p. 560.

9. Zafaran MS 1 1 7.

10. Ibid..

1 1. At the Patriarchate library in Hims.

12. At the Sharfa Library.

13. Zafaran, MS 117.

14. At the Patriarchate library in Hims.

15. Zafaran, MS 11 7.

16. British Museum MS 12174.

17. Zafaran, MS 11 7.

18. At Berlin Library, published by F. Nau.

19. Zafaran, MS 11 7.

20. At our library in Hims abridged from a copy in
Bartulli.

21. Zafaran MS 117.

22. From a manuscript in Amid which we have
abridged.

23. Michael the Great, Chronicle, p. 634.

24. Zafaran, MS 209.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Zafaran, MS 117.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. Zafaran, MS 209.

32. Zafaran, MS 117.

33. Ibid.

34. See these life-stories as well as those of the ancho-
rites which are to be found in the two MSS at the Zafaran
and Diyarbakr.

35. We have the following (life-stories of Saints and
Martyrs) in Arabic: 1) The life- story of Zayna the
daughter of Lycianus; 2) The life-story of Arenius of
which the original Syriac is lost; 3) The life-story of Anba
Karas; 4) The life-story of Michael the ascetic and
founder of the monastery known by his name in Mardin.
It is also called the Stylite Monastery as well as the
Monastery of the Fish built in 350A.H./961 A.D.;5) The
life- story of Zayna, the Syrian martyr, bishop of
Baremman and his sister Sarah in the year 629. His story
was revised and additions were appended to its Arabic
version. I believe it was composed after 1000 A.D.; 6)
The life-story of Barsoum, bishop of Kafrtut who we
believe died after the middle of the tenth century. His
life-story was however written in the eleventh century
and it still has a Syriac touch.

CHAPTER XXVI - On Story Writing

1. Zafaran, MS 118.

2. At Zafaran and Diyarbakr published by F. Nau.

3. Al-Sharfa, MS 24/11.

4. The Ecclesiastical History of Zacharias Rhetor or
Scholasticus, bishop of Mitylene, originally written in
Greek in twelve books and dedicated to a courtier
named Euphraxius, had been edited and published by
Dr. I .and in his Anecdota Syriaca, Leiden, 1870. This
history is preserved in many manuscripts particularly
MS British Museum Add. 1 7202. It is apparent from the
introduction to the third book that this work had been
compiled in Syriac by an anonymous Syrian monk who
lived later than 569 about seven or probably eight
decades after the termination of Zacharias history in
518. The plagiarizing monk, however, uses Zacharias as
his chief authority despite the material which he incor-
porated into books 1, 2, 7 and 12 gathered from various
sources. The letter to Moses of Agel and his reply as well
as the story ofjoseph and his wife Asiya (Asenath) are to
be found in the MS British Museum Add. 17202, folios
4, 5 and 6 respectively. (For an English translation of
this work see The Syriac Chronicle Known as that of
Zacharaiah of Mitylene, translated by F.J. Hamilton and
E. W. Brooks (London, Methuin 8cCo., 1899.). (ed.)

5. Published in the mentioned history, pp. 17-55.

6. Zafaran, MS 118.

7. In the same history, pp. 56-83.

8. This is most likely the Emperor Jovian who suc-
ceeded Julian the Apostate, notjubanian as the author
has stated, (ed.)

9. Such as Tabari, Ibn al-Athir and Abu al-Fida.

10. We have in Arabic the stories of Job, Joseph and
his brothers as well as the stories of the Prophets Moses,
Elijah and Jonah.

CHAPTER XXVII- Philosophy

1 . The learned Bar Hebraeus, in his Tarihh Mukhtasar
al-Duwal (Compendium History of Dynasties), p. 93,
states that “Aristode is the organizer, formulator of
these aphoristic sciences. He is also the establisher of
their rules, theadorneroftheiradvantages, themoulder
as well as the ripener of their toughest substance. The
readiest scholars to understand him and his words, were
al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, for they construed his science
properly and made it accessible for those seeking to
draw from their sweet fountain.”

Section One— The Philosophical Writings of the Syr-
ians in General

1. See the Syriac text and the English translation of
the letter of Mara bar Saraphion to his son in Rev. W.
Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum. London, 1855, 70-76.
(ed.)

2. Ibid., 1-40. (ed.)

Section Two-The Influence of Aristotelian Philoso-

201

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

phy on the Syrians

1 . John Philoponus of Alexandria who lived in the
middle of the sixth century was a grammarian and
philosopher. Later he adopted the heresy of Tritheism
for which he was excommunicated by the church. The
Syrians, however, adhered only to his philosophical
writings and renounced his doctrinal teachings infested
by his great heresy.

2. In his introduction to the book of Aristotle, George,
bishop of the Arabs, stated that “there are three reasons
why some works are erroneously ascribed to him
(Aristotle). First, the confusion of some names; second,
the confusion of names resulting from joint authorship;
and third, the avaricefor gaining illicitmoney. For King
Ptolemy used to offer abundant money for the sake of
obtaining the works of Aristotle which encouraged
many authors to write books in the name of the said
philosopher.”

3. Ernest Renan, De Philosophia Peripatelica apud Syros,
Paris, 1852, 33-34.

4. Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesiastical History, Volume 2: 215.

5. Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al Duwal, 285.

6. Masudi, al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 155, Bar Hebraeus,
Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal,. 93, 296 and 315, and Ibn al-
Nadim, al-Fihrist, 369-370.

7. Of the translators from Syriac to Arabic were Abd
al-Masih ibn Abd Allah ibn Naima al-Himsi, Hilal ibn
Abi Hilal al-Himsi, Zaruba al-Naimi al-Himsi in the
tenth century. Isa of Raqqa (Callinicus) also known as
the Taflisi a physician of Sayf al-Dawla ibn Hamdan
( Tabaqat al-Atibba, 2-140). Also, the physicians Abu
Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Bakos and his son Abu al-Hasan ibn
Bakos, Isa ibn Ali ibn Ibrahim ibn Hilal al-Katib ibn
Bakos contemporary of Abu al-Faraj ibn al-Tayyib (d.
1043) all of whom we consider as Syrian Orthodox.

Section Three-Other Syriac Translations from Greek

1 . Pulished by P. de Lagarde, in Analecta Syriaca x pp.
195-201.

2. Published by Sachau.in Inedita Syriaca, 66-70.
Plato’sAdvice to his disciple hasaChristian touch which
serves as a proof that it is a pseud o-Pla ton ic . The Garshu n i
MS 159 Vaticana also con tains pseudo-Platon ic maxims.

3. Sachau,. 70.

4. Some of itwas published by E. Sachau and the rest
by Mrs. Lewis in Vol. I of Mount Sinai Studies.

5. Published by Mrs. Agnes Lewis.

6. Itis comprised ofl53maxims published by Sachau
and then by Baumstark after the MSS 14658 and 14614
of the British Museum.

7. P. de Lagarde, Analecta Syriaca, 2-31. This treatise
was ascribed to Xystus the Pope of Rome but originally
it is the writing of Xystus the philosopher.

8. See de Lagarde, 158.

9. Published by Mrs. Lewis.

10. de Lagarde, Ibid., 167.

11. Ibid, 117.

12. Ibid..

13. E Sachau. Inedita Syriaca,. 17.

14. Published by I. Guide from the MS 135 Vaticana.

15. Published by H. Zotenbergin the Journal Aseatique,
8: 424.

16. Published by Nestle in vol. 4 of the Mount Sinai
Studies.

CHAPTER XXVIH- On the Science of Medicine

1. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 57.

2. Simon wrote the book of Aphidymea a copy of which
survives in the Library injerusalem, MS 234 transcribed
in 705.

3. See the biography of Marutha, and the Syriac
Chronography of Bar Hebraeus 57, 449, 456, 457, 479,
492 and 563 and his Ecclesiastical History x 1:. 205, 207,
391 , 609, 615, 667, 727 and 735, and 2: pp. 109, 31 1 , 407,
425, 529 and 547; also Bar Hebraeus Tarikh Mukhtasar
al-Duwal x 442, 444, 447 and his Anthology, 40. See also MS
96 Vatican, the Bibliotheca Orientalis, 2: biography 28 of
John bar Abdun, the anonymous History ofEdessa, 2: 395,
308, 309 and 320. Also see Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2:.
622; Ibn Abi Usaybia, Tabaqat al-Atibba, 2: 140. Also the
Book ofMedicinem the Library at Hims, the MSS 208 and
32MedicioLaurenziana, the Commentary on Quaestiones
Medicae of Hunayn in the Library at Hims and Nuzhat al-
Adhhan Ji Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran, 84.

4. See the author’s erratum on p. 232 of the Arabic
version, (ed.)

CHAPTER XXIX - On Natural Medicine

1. This is MS add. 14662 British Museum written in a
neat regular hand of the ninth century. It contains an
abridged recension of the Geoponica which have been
described by P. de Lagarde in his De Geoponicon Versione
Syriaca Commentaria, Leipzig, 1855. This work contains
the treatment of different kinds of soils, the crop suit-
able for each; the times of sowing and gathering in,
manures and their preparation. Also it contains tracts
on grafting, pruning and planting of trees, especially
the vine and its cultivation and how to preserve it from
frost, hail, flight and all kinds of vermin. Finally, it
contains tracts on cattle, horses, sheep, asses, poultry
and their diseases, catching of fish, bees, beehives and
honey, (ed.)

CHAPTER XXX-The Science of Astronomy (Al-
Haya, the From, i.e., of the Heavens);
Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry

1. Sachau, Inedita Syriaca, 101. (ed.)

202

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

2. According to Wright this treatise, which is more or
less theological in its nature, was addressed by Sabukht
to the priest and periodutes Basil of Cyprus on the 14th
of Nisan (April) in the year Gr. 976 (665 A.D.). See
Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, 139. (ed.)

3. The Megisle belongs to Ptolemy and not to Euclid,
(ed.)

4. Published in Paris in 1893.

5. British Museum MS 1007.

CHAPTER XXXI-The Translation of Foreign
Works

1. The word Tarjama (to translate or translation) and
its derivatives are a borrowing from the Syriac.

2. In his letter to Simon, the abbot of the Monastery
of Liqin in the first quarter of the sixth century, Barlaha
stated, “The blessed St. John the faithful, the authority
and lover of God, himself alone translated one or two
books from Greek into Syriac ... to the rest of the
chapters which have been translated with great hard-
ship by men out of their zeal toward God.”

3. In his La Litterature Syriaque, Paris 1907, 323, Duval
states that Michael Andropoulos translated from Syriac
into Greek the “Story of the Sindbad or Sindban and the
philosophers who were with him” for Gabriel, Prince of
Melitene, in the end of the eleventh century. The story
is originally Pahlavi which had been rendered into
Arabic by Musa in the middle of the eighth century. At
the same time Simeon Seth translated the book Kalita
wa Dimna for emperor Alexius Comnenus. This book
was translated from Pahlavi to Syriac by the Periodeutes
Bodh, the Chaldean, in the sixth century.

4. Phroba (Probus) was a disciple of Hiba (Ibas), the
Nestorian metropolitan of Edessa. He was only known
to have translated philosophical books and was highly
praised by Jacob of Bartulli in his Dialogue.

Section One-The Translated Works Until 400 A.D.

1 . The two epistles to the Corinthians were published
in 1 899 after MS 1 700 Cambridge. The two epistles on
the Virginity with marginal notes which are at our
Library in Hims were published in 1856. Of the eight
books one is preserved in MS 247 at the Jerusalem
library.

2. After three MSS, 14618, 17192, and 12175 in
British Museum, commented upon between the 6th
and the 9th centuries. The epistle of Polycarp is in MS
62, Paris, dated the 9th century.

3. For the complete translation of the epistles of
Clement, bishop of Rome, the seven epistles of Ignatius
and the epistles of Polycarp to Philippi, see The Apostolic
Fathers, translated and edited byj. B. Lightfoot (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1962) . This be-
ing a complete and unabridged edition of Lightfoot’s

assigned translations in two parts published by Macmillan
and Company, in 1 890-1 891 . Lightfoot’s translation has
been made from the original Greek and Latin MSS with
reference to MSS ofSyriac, Armenian, Coptic or Ethiopic
translations, (ed.)

4. British Museum MS 12165 dated 1015 and MS
14434, 8th century.

5. Published by Abbe Martin in the four volumes of
the collection of Pitra.

6. Mount Sinai, MS 15; British Museum MS 856.

7. Published by Martin. Some of it could be found in
the British Museum MS 798.

8. Jerusalem, MS 124 and British Museum MS 855.

9. Vatican MS 58 dated 1584 and a new copy at our
library in Hims.

10. British Museum MSS 855 and 856, and Paris MS
62. Also Vatican MS 148.

11. British Museum MS 17192 9th century.

1 2. Published by Abbe Martin in the fourth volume of
the collection of Pitra.

13. Ibid.

14. Petersburg Library dated 462 A.D., and British
Museum MSS 14639 of the 6th century, 12150 dated the
4th and MS 160 of the 10th century at the Vatican.

15. British Museum MS 14665, lOth-llth century.
The last was mentioned by Abd Yeshu al-Subawi in the
table of authors.

16. Jerusalem MS 126.

17. British Museum MS 14569.

18. Vatican MS 104.

19. British Museum MS 18813, 7th century.

20. Basibrina.

21. British Museum MSS 14537, 7th century, 14531,
7th-8th century.

22. British Museum MSS 14650, 6th-7th century;
14649 and 14501, 9th century.

23. British Museum MS 14537.

24. British Museum MS 12150, dated 411.

25. Birmingham MS 69.

26. Mount Sinai MS 9, 9th century written in
Estrangelo script on vellum. It is imperfect, and British
Museum MS 17143, 5th century, and Zafaran MS 241.

27. Cambridge MS 3175 written on vellum in
Estrangelo script containing 54 pages.

28. British Museum MSS 17145 and 14635, 8th-9th
century.

29. The Book of Paradise, St. Matthew’s Monastery MS
6., and Birmingham MS 69.

30. Zafaran Library, Basibrina and Birmingham MS
545.

31. British Museum MSS 17143, 5th century, 14542
dated 509 A.D. and 14543, 6th century.

32. British Museum MSS 12 150 dated 533, 12166,6th
century; 14607, 6th-7th century; 14612, 14617, 7th-8th
century; 1 7192, 9 th century; 14601,9th century; 17185,
lOth-llth century. Also Vatican MS 126, dated 1223;

203

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Berlin, Sachau MS 352, 13th century.

33. British Museum MSS 14544, 5th-6th century;
14545, 6th-7th century; and Vatican MS 122, dated 769
A.D.

34. British Museum MSS 17902, 6th-7th century, and
18815, 9th century. Also Vatican MS 173, dated 665;
Zafaran MS 242, 9th-10th century of 132 pages and
imperfect; Jerusalem MS 127, 10th century., St.
Matthew’s Monastery, MS 55, 12 pages containing se-
lected words.

35. British Museum MSS 14450, 6th century, 14612,
6th-7th century.

36. The libraries of Zafaran, Basibrina and Birming-
ham, MS 545.

37. Gregory, in fact, wrote two letters to Cledonius
and not one letter as the author has erroneously thought
See Wright Catalogue, 2:. 430 and 431, paras. 28 and 29.
(ed.)

38. British Museum MS 861.

39. British Museum MS 14450, 6th century. Vatican
MS 106, 6th century. Also British Museum MS 14601,
9th century.

40. British Museum MSS 14118, 7th-8th century,
14726, 10th century and 12155.

41. Vatican MS 106.

42. British Museum MS 17196, 9th century.

43. British Museum MSS 14597, dated 569 A.D., and
14538, 10th century.

44. British Museum MS 17193 dated 874 A.D.

45. Vatican MS 106.

46. British Museum 787 and 815.

47. Vatican, MS 106, British Museum MSS 14635, 6th
century, 17183, 10th century. Also Diyarbakr Library,
MS 20, 12th century.

48. Zafaran, and at our library in Himsand Basibrina.
Copies of th Commemoration Homilies are also found
in the British Museum MSS 12163, 7th century, 12165
dated, 10 15 A.D., 17192, 9th century, and Berlin, Sachau
MS 726, dated 740 A.D.

49. British Museum MS 12171 dated 832, Berlin MS
352, Cambridge MS 2023, 13th century, Diyarbakr, MS
1 13, 16th century, The Monastery of al-Sayyida, MS 1 42
dated 1678 and MS 92 dated 1683.

50. British Museum MSS 749 and 798.

51. British Museum MS 12162.

52. At the Zafaran, as well as at our library in Hims.

53. Birmingham, MS 69.

Section Two- The Translations Until the Year 451

1. British Museum MSS 17193 dated 874, 18817, 9th
century, 17191, 9th-10th century.

2. British Museum MSS 14670, 6th-7th century, 14669
and 17183, 10th century.

3. British Museum 14567, 6th century, 14727, 13th
century (On Baptism).

4. British Museum MS 14623 dated 822.

5. British Museum MS 14504, 7th century.

6. British Museum MS 14567, 6th century.

7. British Museum MS 14612, 6th-7th century.

8. British Museum MSS 12142, 6th century., 14568
dated 557, 14560, 14559, 14567, 17166 and 14612, all of
them are of the 6th-8th century, 17183, 10th century
(eight homilies) , 17267, 13th century and 14727, 14th
century.

9. British Museum MSS 14563, 6th century, 12159,
6th-7th century, 14562, 7th-8th century and 18727, 13th
century.

10. British Museum MSS 12160 dated 584 translated
atal-Raqqa (Callinicus) probably by Paul, metropolitan
ofCallinicus, also 14566, 6th century, 12180, 14564 and
14565 all of them are of the 6th-7th century, 14563, 7th-
8th century, 12154, 8th-9th century, 14601, 9th century
and 17267, 13th century.

1 1. These homilies are to be found in: Zafaran MS 72
dated 1000 A.D., another copyofthesame MS., thecopy
of the Metropolitanjulius Elias and a copy at the Library
in Hims. Also Vatican MSS 109, dated 691, 197, 7th
century; Berlin Sachau 220 8th-9th century; Vatican 368
and 369; British Museum 14603, 14607, 14612, 6th-7th
century, 14605 dated 652 A.D.; 14546, 14604 and 14608
7th century, 14531 7th-8th century, 14535 and 14601
9th century, 14579 dated 913, 17212 9th-10th century,
14611, 14725 and 17183, 10th century, 12165 dated
1025, 17180 11th century, 17206 llth-12th century,
14739 12th century and 14727, 13th century.

12. The Gospel according to St. John 12:34. (ed.)

13. Ibid,., 14:31. (ed.)

14. Ibid., 15:1. (ed.)

1 5. The Gospel according to St Matthew 26:39. (ed.)

16. Ibid., 26:36. (ed.)

17. Ibid., 26:51. (ed.)

18. Ibid.,. 27:11, (ed.)

19. The Gospel according to St. John 19:28. (ed.)

20. See erratum on p. 232 of the Arabic Version, (ed.)

21. The Gospel according to St. John 19:38. (ed.)

22. Birmingham MS 69; Berlin MS 321; British Mu-
seum MS 856, and Zafaran MS 76.

23. British Museum MS 617, and the MS at the
Monastery of the Armenians which has been presented
to it by the Monastery of the Syrians in the year 1877.

24. British Museum MS 14557, 7th century.

25. British Museum MS 613 dated 611

26. British Museum MSS 15-16 and 14555, 6th-7th
century.

27. The Gospel according to St. Luke 23:1. (ed.)

28. Ibid., 23:44. (ed.)

29. At the Zafaran library as well as at our library in
Hims. Also the copy of Metropolitan Julius.

30. Portions of this letter are preserved in the Bir-
mingham Library MS 69.

31. At our library in Hims. Also in the Book of Canons
at Basibrina.

32. Vatican MS 441.

204

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

33. British Museum MS 941.

34. Portion of it is contained in Birmingham MS 69.

35. Ibid.

36. British Museum MSS 862 and 863.

37. Birmingham MS 69.

38. About the period in which Atticus remained in
his See, see the Chronicle of Elijah, metropolitan of
Nisibin, 110-112.

39. Zafaran; at our Library in Hims; Basibrina.

40. Ibid.

41. Published by Chabot from a Vatican copy.

42. Zafaran; and at our library in Hims; Basibrina.

43. Birmingham MS 69.

44. Basibrina.

45. British Museum MSS 14531 and 14735 published
by Nau in Patrologia Orientcdis, 13, part 2, 1916.

46. Only portion of it is published by Nau.

47. British Museum MS 855.

Section Three-The Rest of the Translated Writings
from the Year 451 and After.

1 . British Museum MS 12156 written before the year
562.

2. See, P. OR (1916), 92-137.

3. See, above, 46-48

4. This book of Hierotheus is entitled de Mysteris
reconditis domus dei (the book of Hierotheus concerning
the Hidden Mysteries of the House of God). It was
translated by Theodosius, patriarch of Antioch and
partly selected, arranged and commented upon by Bar
Hebraeus. See British Museum Orient 1017. See also A.
L. Forthingham.Jr., Stephen barSudaili, The Syrian Mystic
and The Book of Hierothios, Leyden, 1886. (ed.)

5. See the biography of Theodosius of Antioch.

6. Basibrina.

7. Basibrina.

8. J. Pargoire, L’Eglise Byzantine de 527 a 847 (Paris,
1905), 40.

9. Zafaran, Basibrina and in our Library at Hims.

10. Basibrina

11. Basibrina and Berlin Sachau MS 320.

1 2. The disputation of Bar Salibi with the Byzantines
Chapter 29, a copy of which is at our library in Hims.

13. Basibrina.

14. British Museum MS 863.

15. British Museum MS 855.

1 6. See it in the biographical part of this book.

1 7. British Museum MS 699.

18. Basibrina.

19. Birmingham MS 69.

20. The Diaetetes “Arbiter”discusses the union of the
two natures in the person of Christ (ed.)

21. Vatican MS 144, British Museum MS 12171 dated
815.

22. The old code of Laws in Basibrina.

23. The book of the Disputations of Bar Salibi in the

Zafaran Library and at our Library in Hims.

24. Published by Chabot in 1907 after the British
Museum MS 1460 entitled Syriac Documents.

25. This copy corresponds with the Greek copies
published by Cardinal Mai, Geisler and others.

26. The translation of this copy into Arabic was
published by Msgr. Rahmani with comments. He also
fixed an abridged Syriac text in the margin after he
deliberately mutilated its introduction. Majallat al-Athar
al-Sharqiyya, Nos. 6 and 9, 1926.

Section Four- Translations of Greek Writings of
Orthodox Origin Not Known to Us.

1. A collection of canons or Anthems. See British
Museum MSS 14504, 14505 and 14698.

2. Pierre, Batiffol, La litterature grecque x (Paris, 1 898) ,

221 .

3. J. Pargoire, L’Eglise byzantine de 527 a 847 x (Paris,
1905), 126.

4. Pargoire, 126, G. Bardy, 160 and Batiffol, 223.

APPENDIX

1. This appendix contains errata of several items
which this translator thought it more appropriate to
insert them either in the main text or in the relative
footnotes.

PART TWO

CHAPTER I-Biographies of Scholars and
Writers of the First Period

1. Wafa the Aramaean

1. See above 2.

2 The tenth canon of the fifth treatise of the book The
Knowledge of Rhetoric.

2. Paul bar Arqa of Edessa

3. See above 5-7.

4. Volume 1, column 225-226.

3. Bar Daysan (d. 222).

5. The contemporary American orientalistSprengling
maintains that Harmonius is not a proper name but a
Greek term Harmonia, which means the harmony of
tunes.

6. Translated into Latin and French and published
by Francois Nau in 1907 and 1930. For the English
translation of the entire text of the Laws of the Countries,
see William Cureton’s Spicilegium Syriacum, London,
1855. (ed.)

4. Theophilus of Edessa (309)

5. Isaiah bar Hadbo (327)

205

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

6. Miles, bishop of Sus (d. 327)

7. Simon bar Sabbai (d. 343 )

7. See Patrologia Syriaca, (Paris), 2: 1049-1055.

8. Aphrahat the Persian (364)

8. See Volume 1 and 2 of the Patrologia Syriaca in
Paris.

9. St. Ephraim the Syrian (d. 373)

9. Vatican MS 110 transcribed in the year 523; Bir-
mingham MS 147 and a manuscript at our library in
Hims.

10. British Museum MS 587.

11. Wright, CataL P. 766 and the British Museum MS
781.

12. To be found at the beginning of the first volume
of the history of the anonymous Edessan chronicler
copied from the manuscript at Basibrina and tran-
scribed in the ninth century. See also the sources of the
writings of St. Ephraim interspersed in the British Mu-
seum MSS 17179, 5th-6th cent., 12160, 6th cent., 12167
dated 875, 14613, 9th-10th cent., Oxford MS 112, 12th
cent., Paris MSS 234 and 235, 13th cent.

13. This maymarwas translated into Arabic and French
and published by Mgr. Rahmani in Majallat al-Atharal-
Sharqiyya, I, No. 12 and 2, No. 2. A copy of the same is
at our library in Hims, transcribed in the thirteenth
century and containing seventeen lines of this maymar.
This copy is more correct and accurate.

14. See the maymars'm the following MSS: Brit. Mus.
MSS 121 66 and 14573, 6th cent.; 17164, 6th or 9th cent.;
12155 and 14536, 8th cent.; 12168, 8th-9th cent.; 17149
dated 866; and 17185, lOth-l lth cent. Also Vatican MS
117 and the Jerusalem MS 156 (12th cent.) which
contains six maymars, eight maymars included by the
book of the maymars of Jacob of Saruj at the church of
Shamuni the martyr in Mardin; Jerusalem MS 53, 14th
cent., containing nine maymars; and MS 198, 15th
cent, containing one maymar. You will also find one
maymar in each one of the following: MSS 197, 16th
cent; 117, which is an ancient manuscript; 161, 18th
cent.; 18 and 88, dated 1838, 155 and 137 dated 1873.
Moreover, the manuscripts at the Zafaran contain parts
of these maymars.

The monkjuijis Masud translated into Arabic two
maymars on Knowledge and The Pearl, i.e., the pearl of
faith published in our Patriarchal magazine in Jerusa-
lem in 1937, p. 52; and in 1938, p. 146. Furthermore, the
two Maronite monks Mubarak Thabit and Mubarak al-
Mazraani translated into Arabic nine maymars on the
blessings of meals as well as on proverbs and counsel.

15. The Vatican MS 111, written on December 21,
552, contains the most ancient madrashes, totaling 261
on the church, virginity, faith, refutation of the heresies
and on paradise. This MS is followed by MS 8 dated 522,
MS 92 dated 823 and MS 93 of the ninth century which

also contain madrashes. See also British Museum MSS
14520, 17141 and 17207 of the 8th-9th centuries; MS
17109 dated 873, MS 17130 dated 876, MS 14515 dated
893, MS 17190 and 14506 of the9th-10th centuries, MS
14511, MS 1 45 1 2 and MS 1461 1 of the tenth century and
MS 14506 of the eleventh century; Paris MS 164 of the
tenth-eleventh centuries, Oxford MS 153, a MS at our
library in Hims of the thirteenth century and a MS in
WestNew York, N.J., dated 1 285, in the possession of the
Balack Syrian family.

16. In Syriac ( Sebalto )

17. See 114 and 118.

18. 1,211.

19. See the two books of Philoxenus of Mabug on the
Trinity, the Incarnation and the Redemption in Vatican
MS 26.

20. Anton ofTakrit, Rhetorics, canon 10, fifth treatise.

21. See 231. of the Arabic text.

22. Four ancient copies of these treatises dated 1216
are to be found in the Oriental Library in Beirut and at
the Church of the Edessenes in Aleppo: MS 77 dated
1238, Vatican MS 169 dated 1325; Zafaran MS 105, of
the fourteen th cen tury and a modern copy at our library
in Hims. Of these treatises forty were published in Egypt
in 1892.

23. Published in Latin in three volumes by Mubarak
Awwad, containing many treatises attributed to St.
Ephraim.

24. Hayes, L ’Ecoled ’ Edesse, 1 33; Chabot, La Litterature
Syriaque, 27 and Duval, Histoire de la Edesse, 160.

25. Tixeront, Compendious Patrologia, 297.

1 0-1 3. The Pupils of St. Ephraim

26. Wright, Catalogue, 992.

27. Mount Sinai Library MS 67, ninth century, vol. 33;
Brit. Mus. MS 17194 dated 885. This ode was published
by Nau in Oriental Chretiene (1913), 69-73 and was also
published by Harris in extracts from the commentary of
St. Ephraim.

28. Brit. Mus. MS 17193, dated 874.

14. Asuna

15. The Priest Absmayya

29. The History ofEdessa, the year 715 of the Greeks;
and Chronica Minora, 159 and 208.

16. Isaac of Amid (363418?)

30. Chronica Minora, 208, Tarikh Muhhtasar al-Duwal,
144 and the history by the monk of the monastery of
Zuqnin, 1: 193.

17. The Monk Dada of Amid

18. The Writer of the Biography of Eusebius of
Samosata

31. His biography was published in Vol. 4, and was

206

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

translated into Arabic by the monk Jurjis Masud and
published in our ALMajalla al-Batriyarkiyya in Jerusalem

(1937), 206, etc.

19. Cyrillona

32. Brit Mus. MS 14591, sixth century.

20. Ahi, Catholicos of al-Madain (Ctesiphon), (d.
415)

33. The history of Seert, 1: 212; Bar Hebraeus. Eccle-
siastical History, 2: 51 ; Mari ibn Sulayman. The Chronicles
of the Patriarchs of the See of the East, 3 1 and Amr ibn Matta,
25.

21. Mana the Catholicos (d.420)

34. The History of Seert. I: 216; Mari, 33 and Amr, 27.

22. Marutha of Miyafarqin (d. 421)

35. Vol. 2; 57 and subsequent pages.

23. Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 435)

36. Brit. Mus. MS 14557, seventh century, published
by Bedjan in Vol, 5, pp. 628-696.

37. See above pp 30-31; also Brit. Mus. MSS 14715
(dated 1257), 14724 and 17958; Vatican MS 94 dated
1010 .

38. Paris MS 62, ninth century; British Museum MS
14526 dated 641; Cambridge MS 2023, 13th century,
published byJ.J. Overbeck, 210-221.

39. British Museum MSS 17144 and 17149, sixth
century; 17201, sixth-seventh centuries; 17150, seventh-
eighth centuries; 729 and 14577, seventh century, and
17202; Vatican MSS 107, seventh century, 173, four-
teenth century and Oxford Marsh. MS 101.

40. British Museum MS 14653, sixth-seventh centu-
ries.

24. Balai, bishop of Balsh

41. Published by Over beck

42. Zafaran MS 241 and our introduction to the
Ishhim ( Service Book for the Regular Week Days) , 6.

43. A manuscript at our church in Damascus.

44. See the transcribed original of a manuscript at
the Sharfa of the ninth-tenth centuries.

45. Brit Mus. MSS 14511 and 14512, tenth century,
14503, tenth-eleventh centuries; 12147, dated 1006;
Paris. MS 158, dated 1562.

46. Brit. Mus. MS 14591, sixth century.

47. Vatican MS 1 1 7 and Oxford MS 19.

48. Oxford MS Or. 19.

49. Brit. Mus. MSS 12166, sixth century; and 14590,
eighth-ninth centuries; Dayr al- Sayyida MS 101, dated
1876.

25. The Deacon Jacob

26. The Monk Samuel (d. 458)

27. The Priest Samuel (467)

28. The Priest Cosmas (472)

29-30. The Two Priests Peter and Muqim

31. Isaac of Edessa, known as Isaac of Antioch (491?)

50. Chronica Minora, 217.

51. You will find the poems repeated by this parrot
and other poems concerning the Resurrection of Christ
and the dispraise of greed in the Brit. Mus. MS 14592,
sixth- seventh centuries.

52. Birmingham. MS 69.

53. The Beirut edition, 309. Agapius is mistaken in
making him the pupil of St. Ephraim.

54. On the life ofAgapiusibn Mahbubibn Qustantin,
bishop of Manbij (Mabug/Hierapolis) and his history
see, Georg Graf. Geschzchte Der Christlishen Arabischen
Literature ,2: (Citta Dei Vaticano), 1960. (ed.), A manu-
script at our Patriarchate Library in Hims.

55. Gennadius mentioned him in his 66th tract
William Wright makes him a native of Edessa and a
pupil of Zenobius, the disciple of St. Ephraim. Wright,
Syriac Literature, p. 52. See also Wright, Catalogue of Syriac
MSS, 603. (ed.)

32. Isaac, the Second, of Edessa (522)

56. Brit. Mus. MSS 14591, 12166, 6th cent.; 17164,
17158, sixth-seventh centuries; 14666, 14602, seventh-
eighth centuries; 14561 dated 850, 14535, 18817, ninth
century; Vatican MS 93, ninth century; Berlin Sachau
MS 177, dated 1579. Most of these maymars (metrical
hymns) are not included by the collection of Bar
Shushan. Another copy of the maymars of Mar Isaac is in
the possession of some family in the village of Qaraqosh.
It contains sixty maymars and is dated 1574.

57. The Book of Isaiah 40:6. (ed.)

58. Zafaran ’s library MS 53.

59. Zafaran ’s library MS 100 dated 1469.

60. Vatican MS 119 dated 1210.

61. Vatican MS 120, seventh century. Baumstark, p.
64, quoting the priest Abd Allah ibn Fadl al-Antaki
(middle of the fourteenth century) mentions that the
deacon Abd Allah ibn Fadl al-Antaki the Malkite has
translated more than forty maymars into Arabic (Sic).

62. Brit. Mus. MS 17141, eighth-ninth centuries.

63. Al-MajaUa al-Batriyarkiyya (1939), pp. 283-246.

64. Brit Mus. MS 14691, sixth century.

65. A MS at the same library (Brit. Mus.) . Baumstark
mentions in p. 65 that he has found in the Brit. Mus.
MSS 14650, sixth-seventh centuries; 14615, tenth-elev-
enth centuries, and in Paris, MS 13 and in Oxford, MS
71 1, seventeenth century, some maymars, including some
jesting and ascribed to Isaac or Ephraim. These maymars
are perhaps the work of Isaac of Antioch.

33. The Chorepiscopus Poylcarp (508)

207

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

66. Joseph Lebon, Church History, 12: 416-436.

67. Ambrosiana MS 133 C. These scanty fragments
are to be found in the Brit. Mus. MS 17106 folios 74-78.

68. Crawford Manuscripts, 2nd Century; Manchester
library and the Brit. Mus. MS 17193 dated 879. The four
Episdes as well as their Arabic translation are to be
found at the Mount Sinai library, Arabic manuscripts
No. 154. As to the two different translations of the Book
of Revelation they are to be found in the following
manuscripts: Brit. Mus. MSS 14623 dated 823; 14473,
eleventh century; Crawford MS 2; Paris MS twelfth
century; Cambridge MSS 1-2, twelfth century; Brit. Mus.
Rich MS 7162, fourteenth century; Oxford MSS 35 and
119, sixteenth century; Brit. Mus. MS 14474, twelfth
century and Amsterdam MS 148, dated 1470.

69. Florence MS 3, dated 757.

70. Angelica Library in Rome MS 18, eleventh-twelfth
centuries.

71. New York MS of the eighth century which in-
cludes a treatise entitled: A Copy of the Gospel Transcribed
According to IheFormerHeraclean Version and Published in
Philadelphia in 1884.

34. Stephen bar Sydayli (510)

72. Brit. Mus. MS Rich 7189, dated 1268. Other
manuscripts are at Edessa, Zafaran and at our Patriarch-
ate library in Hims.

73. For the ideas of Stephen bar Sudayli the Syrian
mystic regarding pantheism, (lie book of Hierotheos
and its connection with the writings of pseudo-Dionysius
together with the Syriac and the English translations of
the letters of Pililoxenus of Mabug to Abraham and
Orestes the presbyters of Edessa see A. L. Forthingham,
Jr. Stephen Bar Sudaili The Syrian Mystic and the Book of
Hierotheos (Leyden: 1886), (ed.).

35. The Deacon Simon the Potter (514)

74. Brit. Mus. MS Rich. 7189.

75. The Ethikon.

36. John Rufus the Antiochian, bishop of Mayoma
(515)

76. For these chronicles titled Plerophoriae (Testimo-
nies and Revelations Given By God to the Saints), concerning
the Heresy of theDiphysites and the Transgression of Chalcedon,
see W. Wright. Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts in the
Brit. Mus. 3, 1104, para 11. (ed.)

77. Translated from the Brit. Mus. MSS 14650 of 875,
14631/ tenth century, and from Paris MS 284.

37. The History ascribed to the Priest Joshua the
Stylite (515?)

78 Chabot’s copy, 260.

79. See above 52-54..

80. See Assemani. Bibliotheca Orientalis I: 260-283.
(ed.)

81. According to Nau he is the author of the history

ascribed to Dionysius of Tall Mahre, written in the
eighth century. SeeNau’s article in 1 898 on the unedited
parts of the mentioned history.

82. P.241.

83. He was not a Malkite as has been thought and as
we have already mentioned.

84. PP. 257, 280, 304, 310 and 316.

38. The Doctor Mar Jacob of Saruj (d. 521)

85. It is related in the Brit. Mus. MS 825 that they met
in the church of St. Cyriacus the martyr where on
Wednesday the fourteenth of August, he recited to
them his ode on the death and funeral of the Virgin
Mary. It begins thus, “O Son of God who descended
from high into earth by his love.”

86. Zafaran MS 206 contains 214 maymars, dated
1 154. MS 6 of this library contains 78 maymars, covering
956 pages, dated about 1725 with other two similar
volumes and a third one containing maymars for the
whole year, dated about 1509. Also Jerusalem MS 156,
the MS at the church of Shamuni, the woman martyr in
Mardin, containing seventy- five maymars translated in
the twelfth century; the Vatican MSS 114, 115, 116, 1 1 7,
1 18; and the Brit. Mus. MS 825.

87. Brit. Mus. MS 771.

88. B. Nationale, Paris, MS 153; and Berlin, Sachau
MS 81.

89. Birmingham MS 342.

90. The Chronicle ascribed to Joshua the Stylite, p.
281.

91. Brit. Mus. MSS 14726, 837, and 838.

92. See the discourse of the bishop Severus on the
councils.

93. [This letter is also] a silencing evidence against
those [writers] like Assemani and others, who con-
fusedly attempted to associate him with the opponents
of Orthodoxy.

94. TheGosepl according to St. Matthew 12:32. (ed.)

95. Ibid., 5:44. (ed.)

96. St. Matthew’s: library MS 5; Birmingham MS 410.

97. [Preserved] at the churches of Mosul, Mar Sarkis
(Sergius) in Qaraqosh, Basibrina and St. Matthew’s
Monastery as well as in the Vatican MS 109, dated 692;
Brit. Mus. MSS 779 and 14577; and Birmingham MS
546. The homily on the Resurrection was translated into
Arabic by the monk George Masud and published in
our Patriarchal Magazine at Jerusalem [Al-Majalla al-
Batriyarkiyya], 1937, p. 173.

98. At our library.

99. The Jerusalem library.

100. Brit. Mus. MS 17134 of the year 675, and Sharfa
MS of the eleventh-twelfth centuries.

101. Luigi Guiseppe Assemani (Yusuf Louis) Codex
Liturgicus Ecclesia universae (Rome, 1749-1766), 2 and
3. This work which comprises thirteen volumes was
reprinted in Paris, 1902..

102. See 60-62.

208

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

103. BarHebraeus. Ecclesiastical History I: 190. [More
correctly p. 191, ed.]

104. During and after the fifteenth century, some
parasitical literary men translated a part of the metrical
homilies of Jacob of Saruj into colloquial Arabic. A
certain volume containing fifty-nine maymars was trans-
lated into poor and ungrammatical language. This
volume was published by a Coptic committee in Egypt
in 1903.

39. Habib of Edessa

105. See the Calendar of the monk SalibaKhagran, p.
156 as well as the twelve calendars published by Nau,
111 .

106. Jerusalem MS 156, twelfth century, metrical
homily No. 194.

107. Vatican MS 11 7.

108 B. Nationale, Paris MS 177, dated 1521; the
church of St Shamuni in Mardin MS of the twelfth
century and Birmingham MS 7l,

40. Mar Philoxenus of Mabug (d. 523)

109. Leontius the Byzantine wrongly nicknamed him
“the unbaptized runaway slave.” He was later copied by
malicious writers like Theodore the Anagnostes and
even Tillemont the French and some contemporary
writers without discretion or investigation did the same.
Philoxenus was also vilified by Nestorian writers, who
were angered by his vehement opposition to them.

110. Brit. Mus. MS 17196. SeeJ. W. Watt, Philoxenus
of Mabbug: Fragments of the Commentary on Matthew and
Luke (Louvain, 1978), (ed.)

111. Brit Mus. MSS 14534, sixth century, 14649,
ninth century, 17267 and 14727, thirteenth century.
For the Biblical citation see Acts 2:22. (ed.)

112. Vatican MSS 137, dated 564; 138, dated 581;
BriL Mus. MSS 12164, sixth century, and 14663, sixth-
seventh centuries.

113. Brit Mus. MS 17201, sixth-seventh century.

114. Brit Mus. 14529, seventh-eighth century.

1 15. Brit Mus. 14604, seventh century.

1 16. Brit Mus. 14529, seventh-eighth centuries; 14597,
dated 569; 14604, seventh century; and 14628, sixth-
seventh centuries.

117. Budge depended on 17 Brit Mus. MSS tran-
scribed between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries.
They are MSS: 14598, 17153, 12163, 14595, 14596,
14625, 14601, 14621, 14611,12170, 14612, 14577, 17185,
14582, 14522, 14614 and 14728.

118. Brit Mus. MSS 14533, eighth-ninth centuries;
17191, ninth-tenth centuries, 17214, seventh century;
17262, twelfth century; 14577, ninth century; 14582 and
17153, seventh century, 14613 and 17215.

119. Brit Mus. MSS 14690 dated 1182, 17229 dated
1218.

120. Brit Mus. MS 14499, tenth-eleventh centuries.

121. Brit Mus. MSS 14499, 14621, dated 802; 17262,

twelfth century; 14583, eleventh century and 17221.

123. Brit. Mus. MSS 14621, dated 802; 14623, dated
823; 14580, dated 866; and 12167, dated 875. Also the
MS at Inhil, dated 1208 A.D.

124. Vatican MS 135, seventh-eighth centuries.

125. Brit Mus. MS 14649 of the ninth century.

126. Vatican MS 107, seventh century. For the Syriac
text and English translation of this letter see A. L.
Forthingham, Jr. Stephen Bar Sudaili: The Syrian Mystic,
28-48. (ed.)

127. Vatican MS 135, dated 718 and 136; sixth cen-
tury. Also the MS at Basibrina.

128. Brit. Mus. MS 17282, twelfth century; Berlin MS
1999, dated 1573; Zafaran MS 15; the Inhil’s MS and
Dayr al-Sayyida MS 115, dated 1840.

129. Vatican MS 126, dated 1293; Paris MS 62, ninth
century; Brit. Mus. MS 1 7193, dated 874; Cambridge MS
2023 of the thirteenth century and a MS at Basibrina.

130. Vatican MS 136; Dayr al-Sayyida MS 96.

131. Brit. Mus. MS 14597, dated 569; Vatican MS 136.

132. Brit. Mus. MS 14601, ninth century.

133. Brit. Mus. MS 14533, eighth-ninth century.

134. Brit. Mus. MS 14726, tenth century.

135. Brit. Mus. MS 14726, tenth century.

136. Mentioned in his biography.

137. Brit. Mus. MSS 12167, dated 876 and 18816,
twelfth century.

138. Brit. Mus. MSS 14729 and 17262, twelfth cen-
tury.

139. Brit. Mus. MS 12167.

140. Zafaran MS 223, tenth-eleventh centuries.

141. Vol. 2, p. 81.

142. According to the Brit. Mus. MS Add. 14529, the
name of this military governor appears to be Abu Nayfir,
which William Wright read as Abu Nafir. See William
Wright. Catalogue of the Syriac MSS in the British Museum
2: 920. (ed.)

143. Brit. Mus. MSS 14529, seventh-eighth centuries
and 17134.

144. At our [Patriarchate] library in Hims; Birming-
ham MS 71.

145. Brit. Mus. MS 14617, seventh-eighth centuries;
and 14577, ninth century.

146. Brit. Mus. MS 14670.

147. Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesiastical History I: 183.

148. Brit. Mus. MS 14727.

149. Brit. Mus. MS 17193, dated 874.

150. Brit. Mus. MS 14520, eighth-ninth centuries.

151 . Brit. Mus. MS 17206, eleventh-twelfth centuries.

41. The Ascetic Barlaha

42. Simon, abbot of the Monastry of Beth Liqin

152 According to Anton Baumstark, this Simon has,

in fact, translated a collection of manuscripts which
contained the discourse of Basilius on the First Psalm
and the treatise of Eusebius on every single psalm.

209

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Baumstark, 164. This statement contradicts that of the
author who, like Baumstark used Vatican MS 135 as his
source, but does not state that Simon had translated the
treatise of Eusebius or the treatise of Basilius on the First
Psalm, (ed.)

153. Barlaha and Simon were not mentioned by any
historian of literature except Baumstark.

43. Paul, bishop of al-Raqqa (528)

154. For this correspondence between Severus and
Julian see Brit Mus. Add. 1 7200. W. Wright Catalogue, 2:
554. (ed.)

155 . See Brit. Mus. Add. 12158 Wright, Catalogue, 2:
556. (ed.)

156 Brit Mus. Add. 12158. (ed.)

157. This is Severus’ Homilai Cathedrales. See Brit.
Mus. Add. 14599. (ed.)

158. See the biography of Severus of Antioch, 92-96..

44. Mara, metropolitan of Amid (d. 529)

59 This persecution was waged against the Syrian
Orthodox Church by the Emperor Justin I (518-527).
(ed.)

160. John of Ephesus, 1:187.

161. See the history ascribed to Zacharias 2: 79-80.

45. Sergius of Ras Ayn (d. 536)

162. Ephraim the Malkite (a partisan of the em-
peror) apparently connived with Agapetus through
Sergius to depose the legitimate patriarch of Antioch,
Severus, who was living in exile at Constantinople under
the protection of the empress Theodora. The historian
John of Ephesus and Zacharias Rhetor ascribed the
synchronized death of Sergius and Agapetus to the
Judgment of Heaven. See, Land, Anac. Syr. 2: 19 and 3:
290 cited by W. Wright. A Short History of Syriac Literature ^
89. (ed.)

163. Seert MS 21 dated 1186; Paris MS 354 and the
Brit Mus. MS 14658, seventh- eighth centuries in one
hundred twenty-two pages but imperfect.

164. Brit. Mus. MS 1618 contains an extract of the
Isagoge, Vatican MS 158 and Paris MS 161 contain the
Categories of Aristotle.

165. Brit Mus. MSS 14661, sixth-seventh centuries,
and 17156, eighth-ninth centuries.

1 66. See W. Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature,
93 footnote 7. (ed.)

167. See 4648.

46. John of Talla (d.538)

168. Talla or Tall Mawzalt (Constantina), a town
situated between Mardin and Edessa. (ed.)

1 79. At present, a town in northern Iraq and a center
ofaqada (county), (ed.)

1 70. According to a note at the end of the Brit. Mus.
Add. 1721 3, Vol. 97, the number of those who received
ordination from John, bishop of Talla was 170,70 of

which is undoubtedly an exaggerated figure. See Wright,
Catalogue, 3: 1200. (ed.)

171. The Syrian Church commemorates him on the
sixth of February, (ed.)

172. [This collection is to be found] at Basibrina
only.

1 73. Zafaran MS 244, tenth century; Paris MS 62; and
MSS at our [Patriarchate] 1

Library [in Hims], dated 1203 and 1938; Brit Mus.
MS 14577 published by C.Kuberezyk in Leipzig in 1901.

174. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 62, ninth
century; Brit Mus. MS 14631; our library [at Hims] MS
dated 1203; Hbab MS published by Lamy in 1859.

175. Brit. Mus. MSS 14549 and 17193.

176. Oxford Bodlein MS 101 and Vatican MS 159.

47. St. Severus of Antioch (d. 538 )

177. Our purpose of writing the biographies of those
who wrote in Greek like Severus and others is because
their works were translated into our language.

178. In the early centuries some of the Christians
delayed their Baptism until the age of youth and even
later than that age. Severus followed this custom of his
country. See his biography, pp. 92-96.

179 The Chaldean Patriarchate in Mosul MS 56
(122), a vellum written in a fine Estrangelo script, the
first part of which dates back to the tenth century; the
second part was transcribed in the ninth century. It
comes in two hundred thirty-eight pages, imperfect at
the beginning and at the end and comprises two trea-
tises against Nephalius and two treatises against John
Grammaticus.

180. Vatican MS 139, eighth century in 114 pages,
translated into Latin and published by Sanda in 1929.
This translation of A. Sanda was published by
Typographia Catholica PP. Soc.Jesu., 1928. Itwas trans-
lated from the Syriac into French by Robert Hespel and
published, Louvain, 1952. (ed.)

181. Vatican MS 140, eighth century; Brit. Mus. MSS
12157, eighth century; 17210, ninth century; 17211, of
which one volume was published byjoseph Lebon in
1929.

182. Vatican MSS 140 and 255, dated 932; Brit. Mus.
MSS 1 7200, seventh century; 12158, dated 588, of which
the first volume was translated into Latin and published
by Sanda in 1931.

183. Brit. Mus. MS 17154, seventh century

184. Cited by Peter of Callinicus in his book, and by
Bar Kifa in The Book of Paradise.

185. Vatican MS 140.

1 86. The heresy of the worshipers appeared in some
monasteries around Edessa in the fourth century A.D.
Itwas initiated by the monks Simon, Hermes, Dado and
Saba or Eusebius. These monks believed that by con-
tinuous and fervent prayer, [hence the name worship-
ers], one could attain the highest degree of spiritual life

210

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and even the Holy Spirit would appear and communi-
cate with him. Moreover, those who prayed continu-
ously would in the end accept for the second time the
Holy Spirit whom they had already accepted through
baptism. By accepting the revelation, they would be free
from sin. They also believed that upon accepting the
Holy Spirit, there was no need for fasting, abstinence,
mortification of the body, good deeds or even getting
engaged in any labor. As a result most of them spent
their time idle, waiting for the revelation to descend
upon them. They also believed that dreams emanate
from the Holy Spirit, that receiving Communion is
useless and thatin reality there is no sin, since Christ has
appeared on this earth. The worshipers wandered
through townsand villages, living on charity or begging.
Some of them behaved immorally. Their heresy spread
in the Syrian Eastern Church in the middle of the sixth
century, with Sinjar in north Mesopotamia as their
center. It also spread into other parts at the beginning
of the seventh century, (ed.)

187. Vol.2, p. 281.

188. Known as the Gentile martyrs who belonged to
some military battalions. It is mentioned in a homily by
Chrysostom Vol.4, 280. But Theodoret in his Ecclesias-
tical History,.?), 14 maintains that there were only two
martyrs named Juventinus and Maximinus.

1 89 Brit. Mus. MSS 1 7 1 34 and 1 881 6. See also Vatican
MS 94, twelfth century; and Jerusalem MS 60, dated
1210.

190. J. Pargoire. L’Eglise Byzantine, p. 125.

191. Zafaran MS 216.

192. Vatican MSS 142, dated 576; and 143 dated 563;
Brit Mus. MSS 14599, dated 569; and 14601, dated
ninth century.

1 93. The two homilies 1 1 9 and 1 25 were published by
Mgr. Rahmani in his Studio Syriaca, 2: 5-89. Also pub-
lished by him in the same work were extracts from the
homilies 125, 84, 74, 92, 2: 35-40.

194. The Gospel according to SL Matthew 15:5. (ed.)

195. The Gospel according to St. Luke 4:39. (ed.)

196. The Gospel according to SL Matthew. 18:1. (ed.)

197. The Gospel according to St. Luke 10:30. (ed.)

198. The Gospel according to St. Mark 3:28-29. (ed.)

199. The Gospel according to St. Matthew 5:3. (ed.)

200. Ibid., 16:13. (ed.)

201 . The Fist Epistle of St. Paul to Timothy 4:7. (ed.)

202. The Gospel according to St. John 20:17. (ed.)

203. Brit Mus. 12181 and 14600, eighth century.

204. The oldest of which are in the Brit. Mus. MSS
17149, 14612, 14531, 12157, 12155, 14533, 12154, 17193,
14601, 17191, 14538 and 14493.

205. This must be Alexandretta or Iskandarun. (ed.)

206. Letter 54 is missing in the original text.

207. Letters 61 and 62 are missing.

208. Know that the patrician lady Caesarea who wrote
to Mar Severus, inquiring about religious questions,
which he answered, was a noble lady, a native of Samosata

and from a royal stock. Her piety led her to abandon life
around 540 and become a recluse at Alexandria, where
she built a convent of which she became the abbess and
which bore her name. Later, she relinquished her duty
as abbess to another nun and intensified the austerity of
her ascetic life, adorning herself with virtues. She also
built a monastery for men. She died in 556, and was
commemorated on January 5th. See the calendar of the
monastery of Qinnesrin, pp. 30 and 69 .John of Ephesus
wrote her life, No. 54, 2:185. Her steward John and his
wife Susyana followed her ascetic path (See John of
Ephesus. Lives of Saints, No. 55 and 56) . Her conventwas
mentioned around 585 at Samosata in the province of
Comagina, a small state which had been established in
the time of Augustus Caesar. Among the sovereigns of
this state were Antiochus II, Epiphanus, Antiochus III,
and Antiochus IV, (37-68 A.D.). It was overcome by
Vespasian after having survived for nearly 90 years. See
Ancient Syria by Jean Yanoski, Paris, 1862, pp. 63-67.
Therefore, Caesaria is either a scion of the rulers of this
state, which is hard to believe, or she is related to one of
the relatives of the emperors of Constantinople.

209. He wrote this letter before he became a patri-
arch.

210. The number has been erroneously repeated.

211. The Lives of Saints in the Zafaran’s library as well
as at our patriarchate library in Hims.

212. Basibrina.

213. Syriac Documents, 12.

214. The History of Zachariah, 2: 147 and 155, also
Michael the Great, 1: 287 and 292.

215. The History of Zachariah,. 2: 103 and 106. The
Refutation offulian, 18 in 47 pages.

216. Ibid., 2: 123 in 8 pages.

217. Ibid., 2:.138.

218. An old collection in the library of Basibrina of
the fourteenth century.

219. Mosesbar Kifa, A Treatiseon theSoul, Chapter 35.

220. Syriac Documents, 240, 260 and 262.

221. Gustave Bardy. Litterature Grecque Chretienne,
172, which is the best work of its kind.

48. John bar Aphtonya (d. 538)

222. A fragment of this commentary has survived in
the Brit. Mus. MS 12168.

223. These an tiphons were published with the hymns
of Severus of An tioch. See Brit. Mus. Add. 17134, Wright,
Catalogue, I: 330-338. (ed.)

49. Simon of Beth Arsham (d. 540)

224. Arsham is a Babylonian proper name meaning
valiant or hero. It was also used by the ancient Persian and
Elamite languages. See G. R. Driver. Aramaic Documents of
the Fifth Century B.C. (Oxford, 1957), 42. Beth Arsham is
an extinct ancient Persian town which was probably
situated near Ctesiphon, south of Baghdad, (ed.)

225. [John of Ephesus]. Lives of the Eastern Martyrs,

211

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1:137-158.

226. He is al-Mundhir III, ibn Ma al-Sama.

227. Assemani published these two letters in the
Bibliotheca Orientalis, pp. 364 and 436. [number of vol-
ume is missing] . The first letter was also published by
Michaelis and the second by Cardinal Mai, Lands Guidi
and Bedjan. It was also translated into Portuguese by
Esteves Pereira and published in Lisbon in 1899.

50. The Translators of the Canons and Laws of Kings

228. Brit Mus. MS 14528 and Paris MS 46.

229. The previous Paris MS contains a Nestorian trans-
lation of the original which is thought to have been made
in Baghdad in the ninth or tenth centuries. In 1887,
Wright published an incomplete copy found in the Cam-
bridge Library. Of this MS there are Arabic, Armenian
and Iberian copies. Of the Arabic we have a copy in our
library at Hims which we believe was transcribed in the
ninth century, and another copy in Europe transcribed
in 1352. The Armenian copy was translated in 1328. It
seems, however, that the Iberian copy at the library of
Petersburg is a part of the Armenian copy.

51. Samuel of Ras Ayn

230. Brit. Mus. MS 701, dated 815.

52. The Count Oecumenius

231. Brit. Mus. MS 855 of the Catenae Patrum.

53. Thomas, bishop of Germanicia (d. 542)

232. Brit. Mus. MS 14538 includes also a letter from
Constantine, bishop of Laodicea, and Antonin, bishop
of Aleppo, to this Thomas.

54. Zachariah Rhetor

233. Vatican MS 145, eleventh century; Brit. Mus.
MSS 17202, dated about 600; 7190, twelfth century and
12154, dated about 800.

55. Daniel of Salh (d. 542)

234. W. Wright in his Short History of Syriac Litera-
ture, 1 59 calls him Daniel of Salh while in his Catalogue of
Syriac MSS at the Brit. Mus., 2: 605 and 909 makes him
Daniel of Salach. (ed.)

235. Michael the Great Chronicle. 1: 326.

236. One of these copies is dated 1870 and the other
one 1724. They belong to Bishop Paulus (Paul).

237. Brit Mus. 17187 and 14679, tenth-eleventh
centuries. Also, the Manuscript of Mgr. Rahmani dates
from about the thirteenth century.

238. Bartulli MS dated 1 713; Zafaran MS 120, dated
1461; St. Matthew’s Monastery MS 44, dated 1468;
Boston [Houghton Library at Harvard University] MS
4003, dated 1 755; and Birmingham MS 1 47, dated 1 899.

239. Jerusalem MS 46.

56. The Writer of the History of the Himyarite

Martyrs

240. Al-Qaryatayn (the two villages) is a small town
near Hims, Syria, (ed.)

241 . The original copy is in the possession of Mr. and
Mrs. E. G. Wirn of Stocksund in Sweden.

57. John II, abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin
(544)

58. The anonymous Writer of the Monastery of
Qinnesrin

242. See al-Majalla al Batriyarkiyya, 5, (Jerusalem,
1938), 9.

59. The Monk Elijah (Iliyya)

243. The Lives of Saints at the Zafaran Library MS of
the twelfth century.

60. Moses of Agel (550)

244. Vatican 107 and Brit. Mus. 14555.

245. See above, 60-62..

246. We do not know Chabot’s source in ascribing
the episcopate to him [Moses] .

6 1 . The Syrian Monk Thought to be the Writer of the
History Ascribed to Zachariah

247. See biography No. 54.

248. For further information on these topics see the
history of Zachariah Rhetor. See Brit. Mus. MS Add.
17202. Wright Catalogue, 3: 1046-1061. (ed.)

62. Mar Ahudemeh (d. 575)

249. A town on the Tigris, about seven miles from
Mosul in northern Iraq. Called today Aski Mosul (Old
Mosul), (ed.)

250. Brit. Mus. MS 14645 dated 936; The History of John
of Ephesus, book 4, Chapter 2 and Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesi-
astical History, 2: 99.

251. Brit. Mus. MS 14620, 9th century. Also see the
History of Ahudemeh and Marutha published by F. Nau in
1905,101-115.

63. Sergius, the Ascetic Monk (577)

252. For the replies of Sergius the Recluse of the
convent of Nicea to the priestjohn the Aged of Ras Ayn
regarding Patriarch Paul, see Brit. Mus MS Add. 14602,
folio 85 in W. Wright’s Catalogue of the Syriac MSS at the
Brit. Mus., 3: 714. (ed.)

253. Syriac Documents, 225-298.

64. Mar Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578)

254. According to a short account by Cyriacus, bishop
ofMardin, the remains ofjacob Baradaeus were kept at
the Monastery of Cassian on the confines of Egypt until
A. Gr. 933, A.D. 622, when they were translated to his
monastery ofPhsilta, near Tall Mawzaltor Constantina.
See W. Wright, Catalogue, 3: 1131. (ed.)

212

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

255. Pp. 144, 165, 185 and 187.

256. John of Ephesus, Ecclesiastical History. Book 4,
Section 15.

65. Cyriacus of Talla

257. Brit Mus. 14525

258. Brit. Mus. MS 14494, ninth-tenth centuries. See
also Brit Mus. MS 14517, tenth-eleventh centuries.

259. MS at our [patriarchate] library of the sixteenth
century. The priests of Sadad in Syria still recite the last
supplication at the end of the Ninth Hour prayer.

66. Sergius bar Karya (the Short) (580)

260. BriL Mus. MS 17193 dated 874.

261. The Canons of Basibrina, Zafaran MS 244, and
our Library. The Brit Mus. 1 7193 mentions only four of
these canons.

262. John of Ephesus, History, Book 4, Section 41.

67. Paul H, patriarch of Antioch (581 )

263. Syriac Documents, 98 in ( 16 pages) and p. 308 (26
pages).

264 .Ibid.., 177.

265. Ibid., 241

266. p. 293

267. The History of John of Ephesus, Book 3, Chapter 2

68. The Priest Cyrus of Batnan (582 )

268. Michael the Great Chronicle. 2: 337-387.

69. John of Ephesus (d. 578)

279. In 1908.Diakonov published a whole book con-
sisting of 402 pages on the biogrpahy of John and his
writings.

270. See The History of John of Ephesus, Book 3, Section
36.

271. Ibid., Book 2, Section 44.

272. Ibid., Book 5, Section 1.

273 Ibid., Book 2, Sections 7 and 41.

274. Ibid., Book 3, Section 15.

275. Brit Mus. MS 14640.

276. Or the secretary in charge of the imperial seal.

277. In the same library [Brit. Mus.] there are five
copies whose dates range between the ninth and the
twelfth centuries. They contain a group of these histo-
ries. These are the MSS 14650, 12174, 7190, 14651 and
14735. There is also a copy in Paris which is MS Paris
234, thirteenth century. We have also found the histo-
ries of Simon of Beth Arsham the Persian and Abraham
and Marun in the book of the Lives of Saints in a
manuscript at our church in Diyarbakr of the twelfth
century, and the histories of Mary the recluse, Harpat,
Zachariah the Ascetic and the ascetic who was unwilling
to have his name known, in the Ecclesiastical Treatises at
St Matthew Monastery, MS 16; the histories of Zota,
Stephen and Thomas at the library of al-Tahira church
in Mosul, and the histories of Abraham and Marun in

the book of the Littfso/SaintiatBartulli oftheyear 1478.

278. Ecclesiastical History, Book 3, Section 2, Chap-
ter 6.

279. Ibid., Book 3, Sections 6 and 7

280. Ibid, Book 4, Section 46.

281 . Ibid., Section 48.

282. Ibid., Book 4, Section 45.

70. Peter III of al-Raqqa (Callinicus) (d. 591)

283. Brit. Mus. Add. 14603, vellum, seventh-eighth
centuries.

284. Vatican MS 108 dated 728. You also find in the
History of the Patriarchs of Alexandriaby Severus al-Muqaffa,
bishop of the Ashmunin a foolish and irrational attack
on this dignitary (Peter).

71. Julian the Second (d. 595)

285. Jerusalem MS 124, vellum, ninth-tenth centu-
ries, 91-105.

72. Abraham of Amid (d. 598)

73. John Psalter (d. 600)

286. These manithswere published together with the
hymns of Severus of Antioch, 246-248.

74. Rufina the Silver Merchant

287. Zafaran MS 131, fifteenth century.

75. The Priest Simon

288. Brit. Mus. MS 17189, sixth century.

289. Brit. Mus. MS 12172, ninth century.

76. Sergius the Stylite

290. Because the Jew did not want to know except
physical birth. God is too spiritual to be subject to such
natural phenomena.

291. Brit. Mus. MS 17199.

77. Paul, metropolitan of Talla ) (617)

292. P. 10. Unfortunately, the author quite often
refers to valuable manuscripts ofTur Abdin such as this
one, without providing the reader with some informa-
tion about the location of the manuscript, nor does he
give a description of it. (ed.)

293. John of Ephesus. The Lives of Eastern Saints, 11,

269.

294. See above 12.

295. Biblioteca Ambrosiana MS C. 313.

296. Some parts of these Books are at the British
Museum MS 49 which contains the Book of Exodus
according to the Hexapla version. The Hebrew copy was
collated with the Samaritan copy and revised by Eusebius
Pamphilus of Caesaria. It was transcribed by Lazarus,
who finished it in February, 697 A.D. Further, the
British Museum MS 51 contains the Book ofjoshuabar
Nun according to the Hexapla and was collated with the

213

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

quadri copy of the Hexapla of the library of Caesaria in
Palestine. This version was translated from the Greek
into Syriac at the Monastery of the Antonine in Alexan-
dria in February, 61 6. Itwas given as a present by Wahba
of A1 Tuma (Thomas) ofal-Raqqa the Takritians to the
Monastery of the Syrians in memory of Zacchaeus in
703.

297. British Museum MS 14470.

298. British Museum MSS 144950 and 14499, tenth
century.

299. The Calendar of Amid. The Calendar of
Qinnesrin fixes the twenty-fifth (of February) as his
commemoration day. See F. Nau, Le martyrologe el 12
menologes Syr., 38.

78. The Deacon Tuma (Thomas) (617)

300. Syncellus, a Greek word meaning the compan-
ion who remains with the church dignitary in his vicar-
age. Later it was loosely used as a secretary.

301. See above 104

79. Paul, metropolitan of Edessa (619)

302. Michael the Great, 2: 387. Also, The History of
Jacob of Edessa, 324.

303. Michael the Great. Chronicle, 2: 399.

304. The Calendars, 44.

80. Cyriacus, metropolitan of Amid (d. 623 )

305. Basibrina

81. The Anba Paul (624)

306. Assemani. Biblioteca Orientcdis I: l7l, 3, 1-23.
Wright Catalogue, 423-435 and also the letters of Timo-
thy, 135 and 271.

82. Tuma al-Harqali (Thomas of Heraclea) (627)

307. Michael the Great, Chronicle, pp. 583-603.

308. The Boston [Houghton Library at Harvard] MS
450 dated 732 A.D. contains a magnificent copy of this
version. The correct number of this MS is 4050. (ed.)

309. The Bodleian Library, Oxford MS Poc. 10.

310. See the Calendar of Bar Sabuni at Damascus and
the Calendars published by Nau, p. 70.

83. Athanasius I, Gammala (631 )

311. The Syrian Church believes that its Patriarchal
See was established by St. Peter the Apostle in Antioch,
who was the first to occupy that See. It is interesting to
mention thataccording to Michael the Great, Athanasius
was chosen by the Holy Spirit to be the patriarch of
Antioch. Michael relates that “In 595 the Apostolic See
became empty by the death of Julian I (595-591). The
bishops went into confinement to contemplate the
selection of a new patriarch. After fasting and praying
for three days, itwas revealed to them on the evening of
the third day that if they opened the gate of the monas-
tery at the early morning of the next day, the first monk

whom they saw passing by the monastery would be the
one who had been chosen by the Holy Spirit to be the
patriarch of the great See of Antioch. When they opened
the gate they found Athanasius driving his camels,
which were carrying salt from the Gabbula to his mon-
astery. The bishop took him into the monastery and
consecrated him a patriarch, while he was weeping and
refusing to accept such an eminent position. Finally, he
yielded, but he requested the bishops to postpone
assumption of his office until his engagement for one
year as a camel driver expired. They did so. See Michael
the Great, Chronicle, pp. 388-389. (ed.)

312. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 292-402.

313. Ibid., 2: 404 and 411. There is no evidence that
Athanasius wrote a letter to the emperor Heracleus,
denouncing the heresy of John Grammaticus. The
author seems to be confusing this letter with the Synodi-
cal declaration issued as a result of the reconciliation of
the two Sees of Alexandria and Antioch by the efforts of
Athanasius and Anstas of Alexandria who met for this
purpose. At their meeting, both patriarchs anathema-
tize the heretics, including John Grammaticus. See
Michael the Great, pp. 392-399. (ed.)

314. Patriologic Orientalis, The Life ofSeverus, 591-718,
1907.

84. Severus, bishop of Samosata

315. Transcribed from a copy at Habsnas in Tur
Abdin.

85. The Priest Tuma (Thomas)

316. Or Mardin.

317. It seems that the author has misquoted
Baumstark. Baumstark does not state that these three
historical tracts included in the Book of Caliphs belong
to our Thomas. He makes it clear that Thomas is “only
the author of one of three chronicles which appeared at
intervals over a period of a few years.” Baumstark, 247.
(ed.)

318. Chronica Minora, 77, 139, 143 and 148.

86. The Prist Emaues

319. Vatican MS 96.

87. John of the Sedras (d. 648)

320. Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesiastical History 1, 275. History
of the anonymous Edessene I: 263.

321. Published by Nau according to a British Mu-
seum MS 17193 in 1915.

322. British Museum MS 17128 in 148 large size
pages transcribed in the tenth century.

323. British Museum MSS 14518, 14493, 14495 and
14499 and also Paris MS 1059.

324. Paris MS 75, also in a liturgy dated 1486 at the
village of Fayruza.

325. Berlin MS 151.

326. British Museum 825.

214

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

327. Michael the Great Chronicle II, 432.

328. British Museum 14629. Some Nestorian schol-
ars ascribed to him the orders for the Benediction of the
Oil of Anointmentand the Benediction of the Water at
the evening of the Epiphany.

88. Marutha of Takrit (d. 649)

329. Called at present Duhuk near Mosul, Iraq, (ed.)

330. British Museum MS 848.

331. British Museum MS 14645, dated 936, pub-
lished by Nau in 1905.

89. John, metropolitan of Busra (d. 650)

332. The MSS at the church of al-Tahira in Mosul
dated 1671 and at our library in Hims.

90. The Priest Andrew of Jerusalem

333. [Bar Salibi]. Commentary on the Old Testament,
copies of which are preserved in our library [in Hims]
and at the Zafaran’s library.

334. British Museum MS 175591. This MS is not
found in Wright’s. Catalogue of the Syriac MSS in the British
Museum, (ed.)

91. The Ascetic John of Naqar

335. See the collection of the (lives) of Ascetics dated
1208.

336. Birmingham MSS 4 and 86, fourteenth-fifteenth
centuries. Alphonse Mingana ascribed priesthood to
him relying upon the word Qiddis (saint) which [due to
a copying mistake], has been distorted into Qissis
(priest).

92. Denha, maphrian of the East (d. 659)

337. British Museum MS 14645.

338. Al-Majalla of Batriyaridyya (1933), 111.

93. Janurin of Amid (665)

339. Assemani calls him Severinus Chidrdatus of
Amid, but according to W. Wright he had misread the
name. Wright A Short History of Syriac Literature, 156
citing Assemani, B. O. 2, CXLIX, 502, col. 2; iii. I, 23,
note. However, according to I. Giudi, the name of this
translator appears in the Syriac MS of the Vatican 96 as
(Janurin) and not Severinus. See I. Guide, Actes du
Congres des Orientalistes de Geneve, 1894, part 3: 75. (ed.)

340. Michael the GreaL Chronicle, 2: 435; also the
Vatican MS 96.

94. Severus Sabukht (d. 667)

341. Baumstark, 246.

342. See the three folios in the British Museum MS
14547, ninth century.

343. British Museum MSS I7l56and 14460. Also, the
Chaldean Library in Mosul MS 35, sixteenth century
and Cambridge MS 3287, eighteenth century.

344. British Museum MSI 7156, Cambridge MS 2812,

nineteenth century, Dayr al- Sayyida MS 50.

345. British Museum MS 14660, ninth-tenth centu-
ries, and Mosul MS 35.

346. Paris MS 346 dated 1309 in the handwriting of
the priest Yeshu Kilo; Berlin MS 186 in the handwriting
of the metropolitan Moses of Tyre dated 1556.

For the French translation of Sabukht’s treatise on
the astrolabe see F. Nau, “Le traite sur l’astrolabe plan
de Severe Sabokt,” Journal Asiatique IX seric, t. XIII,
1899: 56-101 and 238-303. (ed.)

347. Sachau. Inedita Syriaca, 127-134.

348. British Museum MS 14538, tenth century and,
Paris MS 346.

349. Berlin MS 180. The date 556 should be 665.
(ed.)

350. British Museum MS 17156.

351. Dayr al-Sayyida MS 50.

352. Paris, MS 346.

353. Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, p. 139
citing Assemani B. O., 2: 463. (ed.)

95. The Monk Ithalaha

354. Vatican MS 173.

355. British Museum MS 14725. For more informa-
tion on this MS see W. Wright, Catalogue of Syriac MSS in
the British Museum, 2: 443. (ed.)

96. Yunan (Jonas) bishop of Tall Mawzalt

356. Cambridge MS 2023, thirteenth century.

97. Matta, metropolitan of Aleppo (669)

357. Vol. 1:282.

98. The Bishop Severus

358. Cambridge 2023, nineteenth century.

99. Master Sabroy

359. The letter of David tojohn at the Zafaran library
and at our patriarchate library in Hims.

100-101. Master Ram Yeshu and Master Gabriel

360. Ibid.

361. See above 23. The Basilica is an anthem or
group of anthems usually sung when a king or a prince
is present at the service, (ed.)

102. The Patriarch Severus II (d. 681)

362. Michael the Great. Chronicle, 2: 438-440.

103. Rabban (Master) Aaron the Persian

363. Vol., 153.

364. The eight books ascribed to Clemis in the year
1652.

104. Thomas of Amid

365. Vol. 2:155 and 156.

105. Athanasius II of Balad (d.686)

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

366 Paris MS 248 and a MS in the Vatican. According
to Baumstark this Vatican MS is 1586 ninth-tenth centu-
ries. Baumstark, 257, note 1. (ed.)

367. British Museum MS 14660.

368. See Baumstark, 257, note 1. (ed.)

369. Se above 92-96

370. Baumstark, 259. According to Wright, citing
Assemani, this Athanasius is perhaps the same one who
became patriarch of Antioch. However, the author
seems to be correct in maintaining that this priest
Athanasius is the same Athanasius the Patriarch since
there is no decisive evidence that any Athanasius other
than Athanasius ofBalad translated the letters of Severus
of Antioch. See Wright Catalogue, 2:564. (ed.)

371. The Chaldean library in Mosul MS 56 copied
from the MS in Amid.

372. British Museum MS 12153. See above biography
No. 81.

373. Zafaran MS 241.

374. The Letters of Timothy, 120, 156, 265.

375. The Basibrina Canons.

376. The Code of Canons at the library of Zafaran and
also at our library [in Hims]. During Id al-Adha (The
Feast of Immolation) the Muslims usually offer sheep or
cattle as a sacrifice, (ed.)

377. The Basibrina Canons.

106. Ibrah im al-Sayyad (686)

378. This nickname is mentioned in the Eastern
Intercession in the Choral Book at our library in Hims.

379. Berlin MS 51. It is also found in several liturgies
at our churches.

107. John I, maphrian of Takrit (d. 688)

380. Michael the Great Chronicle 2, 439-411. The
Sharfa MSS 17/41 contain a touching five syllabic ode
in six pages on restraining the soul and on the call for
repentance, with which the monastics amused them-
selves by chanting it in their cells. It is a tender and
eloquent ode, which we believe was composed between
the seventh and ninth centuries.

108. The Presbyter Simon of the Monastery of
Qinnesrin

381. Baumstark. Geschichte der Syrischen Literatur, 247.

109. Mar Jacob of Edessa (d. 708)

382. Michael the Great. Chronicled: 439-441.

383. Baumstark says that the second poem is in a
prose form.

384. Bibliotheque Nationale MS 27.

385. The Catena Palrum is a book of selections from
the writings of the Fathers arranged in the form of a
continuous commentary on the greater parts of the
Books of the Old and New Testaments. They were
compiled by a monk from Edessa named Severus (d.
861). These selections, particularly, contain greater
parts of the commentaries ofjacob of Edessa on the Old

and New Testaments. See William Wright. Catalogue of
Syriac Manuscripts in the British Museum 2: 910. (ed.)

386. See above, 13-14.

387. Brit. Mus. MS 14483.

388. Bar Hebraeus. Hudoyo (Nomocanon), 106.

389. Bibliotheque Nationale. MS 276.

390. This treatise should not be confused with an-
other treatise entitled De Causa Omnium Causarumwhich
is erroneously ascribed to Jacob of Edessa. There is
sufficient evidence by modern writers that De Causa
Omnium Causarum was written by someone else, prob-
ably in the tenth century. See William Wright, Syriac
Literature, 147 and 242; Baumstark, Geschichte der Syrischen
Literatur,255 and 281. (ed.)

391. Lyon. MS 2.

392. The Chaldean Patriarchate in Mosul MS 54.

393. Leiden MS 66.

394. Brit. Mus. MS 12154

395. At our Library in Hims and Brit. Mus. MS 825.

396. See the Didascalia.

397. At the monastery of Mar Ibrahim in Midyat; at
the library of our church in Constantinople; at our
patriarchal library in Hims and at Berlin, p. 628 of the
index and at Sharfa 4-1 .

398. The collection of Canons at Basibrina.

399. See above, 17-1 8..

400. See above, p. 22-23..

401. Assemani. Biblioleca Orienlalis I: 487.

402. Boston [The Houghton Library of Harvard
University] MS 4016.

403. Beth Gaz at Diyarbakr of the sixteenth century
in the handwriting of the deacon Abu al-Hasan.

404. In Jacob’s revision of this liturgy, Mgr. Rahmani
saw the terms Mshaxotaf bhashe which Jacob gave as the
translation of the Greek compound word simpathis
meaning “partaker in compassion,” or “compassion-
ate.” Rahmani translated it literally as “partaker in
sorrow” (sic), whereas the correct translation is “par-
taker with sorrow.” Rahmani also erroneously thought
thatjacob distorted the intrinsic meaning of this phrase
and that he forced the phrase “with thy Son” in vain
before the word Simpathis for the sake of clarification.
See Rahmani, Liturgies, p. 69. Rahmani is mistaken,
because this term, mshawtafbhasheis a compound and its
meaning corresponds with the meaning of the Greek
term simpathis. Further, the Syriac term hasho and its
derivations mean grief, sorrow, kind feeling and com-
passion, etc. as do the meanings of the Greek word
pathos. It is obvious that Doctor Jacob meant here
“compassion.” The futility of the claim of the critic
[Rahmani] and the information he collected, is also
evident from the text of the prayer under discussion
which is, “Truly thou art holy, king of the worlds and the
giver of all holiness. Holy is thy only Son our Lord Jesus
Christ and holy is thy Holy Ghost, which knowest every-
thing and knowest thy hidden mysteries. O God and
Father, thou art holy, with thy compassionate Son,

216

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

almighty and omnipresent; revered and good, particu-
larly in thy nature. Thou art who created man from dust
and granted him the enjoyment of Paradise, but when
he disobeyed thy order and fell, thou did not tarry nor
leave him in his error.” Where is the meaning of sorrow
here? It would have been better for Rahmani to be
scrupulous and to know thatjacob of Edessa is a scholar
not to be blamed or criticized in this regard.

405. There are numerous copies of this Husoyo, one
of which is at our library in Hims.

406. At our patriarchal library in Hims and at the
church of Amid.

407. See above, pp. 92-96.

408. Florence MS 209 and Paris MS 248.

409. Michael the Great, Chronicle 1:124.

410. Zafaran and Jerusalem’s library.

411. Brit Mus. MS 12174 and Paris MS 236.

412. Brit Mus. MS 12154.

413. Brit. Mus. MS 14685.

414. Brit Mus. MSS 17217 and 14665.

415. A copy at Zafaran and two copies at our patri-
archate library in Hims.

416. The Canons of Basibrina.

417. BriL Mus. MS 1212172.

418. At our library in Hims.

419. G. Phillips. A Letter by Mar Jacob, Bishop of Edessa,
on Syriac Orthography, 1869. Also P. Martin , Jacobi epi
Edesseni, Epistola ad Georgium epun serugensem de
Orthographia Syriaca, 1869. (ed.)

420. At our library in Hims.

421 Bar Hebraeus. Semhe, Book 4, treatise 1, para 2.

422. The Canons of Basibrina.

423. Ibid.

424. SeerL MS 69 and Brit. Mus. MS 14631.

425. SeerL MS 69 and the Brit. Mus. MS 14631.

426. The Book of Joshua 1:9.

427. The Canons of Basibrina.

428. The Festival of the Invention (finding) of the
Cross was canonized in the fourth decade of the fourth
century, first atjerusalem, whence it spread into other
churches.

429. Of whom we found no information in any other
source. Cf. William Wright. Cataloguell, 598 who men-
tions “Andreas and his brother Magnus.” (ed.)

430. The Didascalia.

431. Basibrina.

432. Basibrina. By the Secret Words, the author
means the prayer of the Consecration of the bread and
wine of the Holy Communion, (ed.)

433 Basibrina.

434. The Book of Genesis 15:13. (ed.)

435. The Book of Numbers 12:1. (ed.)

436. The Book ofjob 2:6. (ed.)

437. The Book ofjob 40:15. (ed.)

438. The Gospel according to St. Matthew 23:35.
(ed.)

439. 1 Kings 18:17-24. (ed.)

440. The Book ofjonah 3:4. (ed.)

441. The Book of II Kings 4:39.

442. For further information on the replies ofjacob
of Edessa to John the Stylite of Atharib, see Brit. Mus.
MS 12172 in Wright’s Catalogue 2: 529-605.

443. At our Library (1603)

444. An extract of this letter is to be found in the
Didascalia.

445 . Brit Mus. 12172. Eustathius was still living around
710. See Michael the Great, Chroniclell, 451.

446. Vatican MS 95 and Cambridge MS 2011. See
Baumstark, 255. (ed.)

447. In a Beth Gaz at our patriarchate Library in
Hims dated 1568.

448. The miscellaneous collection of Basibrina.

449. This copy was transcribed in 1004.

450. Our patriarchate library in Hims MS 1417;
Oxford Bodl. MS 460.

451. Baumstark, Geschichte der Syrischen Literatur, 254.
The author’s quotation of Anton Baumstark is not an
exact translation. Baumstark said that “Christian Helle-
nism has found in Jacob of Edessa the most prominent
representative in the Aramaic language. His individual-
ity and importance become most effective in a compari-
son to Hironymus IJerome]. Like Hironymus, Jacob of
Edessa’s preference to apply the personal form of a
letter to his mostly philologically-oriented scholarship,
is characteristic. Like the creator of the Vulgate, Jacob
of Edessa -while occupied with the Old Testament-had
at his disposal the invaluable resource of his knowledge
of Hebrew. He applied his best talents to correcting
revisions of older translations, mostly liturgical texts.
For the Latin compiling of the Eusebian Chronicle, the
basic chronological achievement has to be attributed to
him.The diversity of the contents of his other prose
(mostly the protrusion of Lianimar philosophy and
natural history and the occasional usage of metrical
verse also) makes the Syrian Jacob of Edessa appear
more versatile than the Westerner. Baumstark, p. 248
and not p. 254 as the author has fixed. However, on p.
254 Baumsark mentions the works of Jacob of
Edessa. (ed.)

452. The author implicitly refers here to Assemani,
who according to W. Wright “tried hard in Vol. I to
prove that he was not a Monophysite, or Orthodox as
the author and his Church maintain, (p. 470 sq.), but in
2:337 he gives up the attempt in despair.” Wright, A
Short History of Syriac Literature, 141 , ff 1 . (ed.)

110. The Bishop Euthalius

453. See above, 254 of he original text which the
editor could not find.

111. Presbyter Simon, abbot of the Monastery of the
Arabs

454. The Canons of Basibrina.

217

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

112. Presbyter Simon of Samosata

455. Zafaran MS 117-118 and also at the Church of
Diyarbakr.

113. David, bishop of Marash

456. Michael the Great Chronicle , 450.

1 14. The Historian Moses of Inhil

457. In an MS at our patriarchate library in Hims.

1 15. Elijah I (d. 723)

458. Vatican. MS 145.

459. Brit Mus. MS. 17197

460. Brit Mus. MS 14615, tenth-eleventh centuries.

461 . According to Yaqut al-Hamawi in his Mujam al-
Buldan, Ruhim is a village on Mount Lebanon, near
Aleppo, (ed.)

116. The Monk Tubana

462. See above, pp. 13-14.

117. The Deacon Saba (d.726)

463. See the author’s Nuzhat al-Adhhan, 50.

1 18. Mar George, bishop of the Arabs (d.725)

464. Brit Mus. Add. 12154. The author seems posi-
tive that this short commentary was written by George,
bishop of the Arabs, while the MS states that “it was
written by a bishop named George.” However, this
George may be the same George, bishop of the Arabs.
See Wright, Catalogue, 2: 985. (ed.)

465. Seert MS 69.

466. Brit Mus. 14725.

467. Georg Hoffmann, De Hermeneuticis apud Syros
Aristotilius, (Leipzig, 1869), 148-151. (ed.)

468. See above, 63.

469. Brit. Mus. MS 14659.

470. PP. 129-132.

471. Jerusalem MS 222 (thirteen pages), also Brit.
Mus. 825 and Vatican MS 11 7.

472. The Basibrina Homilies.

473. Zafaran 27 and Basibrina.

474. Vatican 532 and Berlin. This homily was pub-
lished by Gabriel Boyaji.

475. Basibrina.

476. At our library.

477. Ibid.

478. Brit Mus. Add. 12154.

479. William Wright writes it Anab,. See Wright,
Catalogue, 2, p. 987 (ed.)

480. The writer’s account on the contents of this letter
seems to be free and quite different from the original
Syriac text According to the Syriac text, the dispute had
arisen among the assembly of monks and clergy, some of
whom maintained that “Sins are forgiven through the
prayers of the priests,” while others maintained that “Sins
are not forgiven, except through works of repentance.”

See Wright, Catalogue, 2, 988. (ed.)

481. According to the Brit. Mus. Add., 12, 154, this
letter was meant to explain two passages in one of the
sermons of Gregory Nazianzen. See Wright, Catalogue,
2: 988. (ed.)

482. Seert, 69.

483. The Paris MS 346 transcribed in 1309 contains
fragments of the works of Mar George, but we have not
read this MS. However, in the collection of Basibrina we
have read questions and answers byjacob of Edessa with
acommentaryon the third question by (George, bishop
of the Arabs) . There is also mention of George by Elias
of Nisibin in his Chronicle, 2: 7, citing, in some of his
letters, his statement on the months which have thirty
days only. He also called him the Bishop of the Maadiyyin
(an Arab tribe) .

1 19. Sabar Yeshu

484. See David bar Paul.

120-124. The Philologists of St. Matthew’s Monas-
tery

125. Mar Simon Zaytuni (d. 734)

485. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 459.

486. See his biography.

487. Brit. Mus. MS 17197.

126. Constantine, bishop of Edessa (d. 735)

488. See the Chronicle of the monk of Zuqnin, 2: 164;
Michael the Great, Chronicle^ 2: 446, 450 and 459 and the
Chronicle of the monk of Qartamin which we have
published, 17.

489. PP. 2-4

490. At our library.

491. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 755-756.

127. John the Stylite of Atharib (d. 738)

492. MS 3973 (thirteenth century).

493. Michael the Great, 2: 461.

494. The Book of Genesis 49:10. (ed.)

495. Brit. Mus. 12154.

496. See biography No. 134.

128. Daniel bar Moses

497. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 378.

498. 1: 168-171.

129. John bar Samuel

499. Ibid., 2.

130. Phocas of Edessa

500. The Mosul MS, 120, 156 and 265.

131. John II, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monas-
tery

132. Iyawannis I, (John) (d. 754)

218

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

501. As said by Michael the Great and Bar Hebraeus
in their histories, and not the bishop of Harran as was
cited by Elias of Nisibin, and thought by Duval and
Baumstark. In fact, the bishop of Harran at that time was
Thomas (734-738) . See our article entitled “The Bishop
of Harran” in the Patriarchate Magazine (1934), 37 and
38.

502. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 468-469.

133. Elias, bishop of S injar (d. 758)

503. At our library.

CHAPTER II- Biographies of Scholars and
Writers of the Second Period

134. Cyriacus, metropolitan of Tur Abdin (770)

1. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 465-473.

2. The history of the monk of Zuqnin, 2:. 289.

3. Bar Salibi, The Book of Theology and Disputations,
dated about 1200.

135. The Monk Lazarus of Beth Qandasa (773)

4. Brit. Mus. MS 14683.

5. Jerusalem 123.

6. Brit. Mus. MS 18295.

7. Wright has two contradictory opinions regarding
the compiler of this commentary on the Gospels ofjohn
and Mark. In his Syriac Catalogue, 2:. 608 and 610, he
stated thatthe “compiler of this commentary wasHarith
bar Sinin of Saubat and of Harran.” However, after
studying MS 14683, which indicates that parts of the
Pauline epistles were written by Harith bar Sinin of
Saubat, he was led to believe that this indication “ren-
ders it exceedingly probable that the said Harith was
merely the copyist, and that he has claimed the labours
of Lazarus of Beth Kandasa as his own.” Butin his Syriac
Literature, p. 162, which appeared at least twenty years
after his catalogue, Wright, despite the clarity of MSS
14682 and 14683, credited Lazarus of Beth Qandasa
with the compilation of the said commentary with no
substantiation, (ed.)

8. Baumstark, 271. (ed.)

9. According to Yaqut in his Mujam al-Buldan, Sanbat
is the name of a village in the island of between Cairo
and Alexandria, (ed.)

10. Brit Mus. MS 14682.

1 1 . The Coptic patriarchate MSS 1 1 and 54, contain-
ing two new copies of the Pentateuch, translated from
the Syriac into Arabic, according to the Septuagint, by
al- Harith ibn Sinan, who was probably still living at the
close of the ninth and the beginning of the tenth
centuries.

136. The Historian Monk of Zuqnin (775)

12. Vatican MS 162.

137. The Translators of Canons (hymns)

1 3. See above 1 7.

14. Cambridge MS 624.

138. Mar George I, patriarch of Antioch (d. 790)

15. Vatican MS 154.

16. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 480-482.

17. Acts 12:5-17.

18. Luke 1:78-79. He used the verses freely, but kept
the meaning intact. The two verses which the writer
cites read “through the tender mercy of our God,
whereby the day spring from on high has visited us, to
give light to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow
of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace.” (ed.)

139. The Monk Theodosius (806)

19. Zafaran MS 241.

20. Sharfa MSS 9 and 10 of the middle of the
sixteenth century.

21. Jerusalem MS 129.

140. Iliyya (Elijah) of Harran

22 Brit. Mus. Add. 14726.

23. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orienlalis, biography 32, 156
and after.

141. Theodoras bar Zaradi

142. Simon bar Amraya (d. 815)

24. Seert MS 52.

143. The Anba David bar Paul of Beth Rabban

25. See the biography of Moses bar Kifa.

26. As stated by a marginal note on p. 4 of the
collection of his letters which mentions the year one
thousand and ninety, but the figure which succeeds the
ninety is illegible because of the age of the copy.

27. The Book of the Six Days by Jacob of Edessap. 122,
preserved at Leyons (France).

28. Wright, citing Assemani, based his view that
David bar Paul belonged to the thirteenth century on
the grounds that he was cited by Bar Hebraeus in his
Awsar Roze ( The Storehouse of Secrets) . See Wright, 259-
260, citing Assemani, B. O. 2, 243. (ed.)

29. At our library.

30. Zafaran MS 248. Also three recent copies, one in
our library, Birmingham 29 and a copy in the possession
of Professor Margoliouth at Oxford presented to him by
this writer in 1913.

31 . Rahmani published parts of them in Chapter 3 of
his Studia Syriaca.

32. Vatican MS 66 contains a copy of this discourse
under number 152.

33. Jerusalem MS 161; Birmingham MS 338.

34. Zafaran MS dated 1482.

35. Vatican, ninety-six pages.

36. Birmingham 488 and 338; Berlin, 315, dated

219

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

1481 imperfect from at the beginning to the letter “G.”

37. Paris MS 276.

144. Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch (d. 817)

38. At our library ans at Seert MS 69

39. Brit Mus. 17145

Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 498.

40 At our library and Michael the Great, 2:495-497

.Jerusalem MS 118, dated 806 and also the MS at our
library dated 1915 which consists of 191 large pages.

41. Michael he Great, 2:494.

42. Jerusalem MS 118 and at our library dated 1915

43. A second copy is at our library dated dated 1 602.

44. Jerusalem MS 118 and at our library dated 1915.
[ The pledge of allegiance is recited by metropolitans,
bishops and other high-ranking clergy before their
ordination contains their promise to uphold the Ortho-
dox faith, the laws of the Church, its sacraments and the
ecclesiastical councils which it recognizes. It also con-
tains the punishment of excommunication in case the
ordained person violates his allegiance. This practice
has since been enforced in the Syrian Church until this
day. (ed.)]

45. The Basibrina Homilies.

46. Ibid.

47. Isaiah 5:1.

48. Brit. Mus. MS 848.

49. The Collection of Basibrina.

50. MS at our library.

51. Brit Mus. MS 17145.

52. The Book of the Belief of the Fathers.

145. The Doctor Athanos

53. Jerusalem MS 123, dated 887.

146. The Chronicle of Qartamin

54. See Patrologia Orientalia, 1920.

147. Habib abu Raita of Takrit (828)

55. Copies of these treatises are to be found in Paris,
Rome, Cairo and the Coptic Monastery in Jerusalem.

56. Louis Cheikho, Al-Makhtutat al-Arabiyya li-Katabat
al-Nasraniyya (Arabic Catalogue of Christian Writers) ,
p. 20. See also Bishop Isodorus (d. 1942).

148. Lazarus ibn al-Ajuz (Sobto ) (829 )

57. Brit Mus. MS 625.

58. Vatican MS 147; also at Sharfa, Istanbul and our
library.

59. Vatican MS 147.

60. Our library and also Renaudot, Liturgies, 2: 399.

61. Al-Tahira Church in Mosul MS dated 1301, Bir-
mingham MS 546, and also at the village of Qaraqosh
and at our library.

62. Bar Hebraeus, Ethikon, Section 5, Chapter 4: 66.

149. Theodosius, metropolitan of Edssa (832)

63. Anton of Takrit. The Book of the Knowledge of
Rhetoric, Section 5, Chapter 2:. 87.

64. Michael the Great. Chronicle, 2: 378.

65. Bar Hebraeus. Ecclesiastical History, 2: 363.

66. Vatican MS 96.

67. Bar Salibi. Theology, Heading 275, p. 190, pre-
served in our library.

150. Thomas the Stylite (837)

68. The library of the Jesuit school MS 2: 122, the
middle margin.

69. The collection of Husoyos in Tur Abdin.

151. Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 843)

70. Brit. Mus. MS 14725.

71. Brit. Mus. MS 14538.

72. The Edessen library MS thirteenth century, Bir-
mingham MS 539, Chapter 4, section 2: 141.

152. Basilius, bishop of Samosata (d.843)

73. Brit. Mus. MS 14538.

153. Rabban (doctor, master) Anton of Takrit

74. This is how he calls himself at the end of his
treatise on the Chrism: Anton of the family of Keorgin
of Takrit, who is likened unto the monks. The name of
hisfamilyisalsomentioned in the lexicon ofBarBahlul.

75. W. Wright erroneously believes that Anton’s
treatise on rhetoric was in seven chapters. He was, as it
seems, misled by the Brit. Mus. Add, 17208 which
contains only seven leaves of the first book of the
treatise. See Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, p.
203 and also his Catalogue, 2: 614. (ed.)

76. Jerusalem MS 231.

77. Birmingham, Woodbrooke MS 402, transcribed
in the middle of the sixteenth, not the fourteenth
century, as was erroneously thought by Mingana. This
MS consists of eighty pages, containing the firstand part
of the second books. The Brit. Mus. MS 17208 contains
only seven pages of the first book. Rahmani published
the index of this treatise, together with the fifth book, in
1908. Some of the chapters were also published by
Sprenglin. The fifth book of this treatis was translated
into English by Professor J. W. Watt and published by
CSCO. See J. W. Watt, The Fifth Book of the Rhetoric of
Antony ofTagrit (Lovain, 1986). (ed)

78. A copy at our library.

79. Brit. Mus. MSS 17208 and 14726.

80. See a our article on Mar Anton of Takrit in
Majallat al-Hikma, Jerusalem, 1931.

154. Mar Dionysius Tall Mahre (d.845)

81. See this author’s article on the election of Mar
Dionysius, in al-MajaUah al- Batriyarkiyya (the sixth year),
p. 213.

82. See biography No. 136.

83. MS at our library.

220

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

155. Nonnus of Nisibin

84. Brit. Mus. MS 14594, eleventh-twelfth centuries.

85. The author’s account of this treatise seems to be
incomplete. According to the Brit. Mus. MS 14594,
Nonnus addressed a letter to an unnamed person who
wanted to know “how Christians were to prove to poly-
theists and infidels that God was one, not many, that this
One was three, and yet one and the same; and that the
Incarnation of God the Word, one of the Holy Trinity,
took place under a fitting conjunction of circumstances
and as such became the Deity.” See both the Syriac
version and its English translation by Wright, quoted
above, in Wright, Catalogue, 2: 618. (ed.)

156. The Anonymous Historian (846)

86. See biography No. 146.

87. Brit Mu. 14642

157. Arabi, metropolitan of Samosata (850)

88 Bar Bahlul, 279.

89 The Annual Records MS 241 in the Zafaran library

90 The Rules of Reading.

91. Zafaran MS 242.

92. The Book of the Philosophers, No. 992.

158. The Monk Bar Hadhbshabba

93. Brit Mus. MS 14601.

159. The Priest-Philosopher Denha

94. Shiha or Shih, is a village near Cyrruhs. Before
1052 it was the bishopric seat of the Malkite (Rum)
Metropolitan Shih who changed the Order of Funerals
from Greek into Syriac. See Studia Syriaca, 3: 12.

95. Midyat

96. Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, 218-219.

160. Iyawannis (John) metropolitan of Dara (860)

97. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 754-756.

98. Ibid., 2: 378

99. Bar Hebraeus, Hudoye (Nomocanon), 106.

100. The MS at the library of our bishopric in Mosul
transcribed at the beginning of the twelfth century. See
also, Oxford ) Or. MS 264, Birmingham MS 56 and our
library.

101. No. 100 transcribed before 932

102. Zafaran MS 243.

103. Birmingham MS 67.

104. The Houghton Library at Harvard University
MS 3973.

105. Vatican MS 100. It is said that Vatican MS 147
transcribed in 1234 contains selections from this trea-
tise.

106. Assemani, B. O., 2: 123, See also, Wright, A Short
History of Syriac Literature, 204. (ed.)

161. Jacob, bishop of Ana (860)

162. The Monk Simon al-Hisn Mansuri (861 )

107. Vatican MS 103.

1 63. The Monk Sawira of Antioch

108. Vatican MS 103 and the Brit. Mus. MS 853.

164. The Doctor Daniel of Beth Batin

109. Brit. Mus. MS 14725. See Wright Catalogue, 2:
441-442. (ed.)

1 10. Brit. Mus. MS 17197. See Wright, Ibid., 441 (ed.)

111. The Constantinople MS dated 1574, also at al-
Sharfa

112-Vatican MS 147 and one at Constantinople.

113. The I Ibab MS 1485.

114. Zafaran MS 67. There is also an elegant copy at
our library, transcribed in 1250.

1 65. Isaac, he Compiler of the Liturgy

115. At the churches of Mardin, Amid, Qalat al-
Imra’a and at our library.

1 66. John IV (d. 873)

116. MS at our library.

117. Bar Hebraeus. Hudoye, p. 88.

118. The Canons of Basibrina.

119. Michael the Great. Chronicle, 2: 755-756.

167. Ignatius II (d. 873)

120. Michael the Great, 2: 755-756.

1 68. The Patriarch Theodosius

121 . Zafaran MS 213, containing the Commentary on
Hierotheus.

122. Romanus adopted the ecclesiastical name
Theodosius at his consecration as patriarch. See Wright,
A Short History of Syriac Literature, p. 206. It should be
added in this respect that this custom of adopting a
name of one of the ancient Fathers and saints of the
Church by metropolitans and bishops at the time of
their elevation to their high offices is still practiced by
the Syrian church to this day. (ed.)

123. Zafaran MS 213, containing a commentary on
Hirotheus. [The pseudo-Hirotheus is entitled On The
Hidden Mysteries of the House of God. (ed.)]

124. Paris MS 157 dated 1540, published by Zotenberg
in 1876.

125. Vatican MS 192.

126. Brit. Mus. MS 7206.

1 69. The Deacon Zura of Nisibin

127. The Book of Genesis 2:9. (ed.)

128. A commentary on the Old Testament at our
Library.

170. Garshun the Stranger

129. Jerusalem: The Book of the Exposition of the Sacra-

221

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

merits and Festal Homilies by Bar Kifa dated 1873.

130. Michael the Great, 2: 559.

171. Job of Maninmim

131. See Biography no. 121.

132. At our library.

172. Mar Moses bar Kifa (d. 903)

133. According to a weak theory mentioned by the
Anonymous Edessene, he was born in 833. 2: 275.

134. In his commentary on the Gospels, Bar Salibi
called him the “Metropolitan of Mosul.”

135. Bar Hebraeus. Eccl. History, 2: 215.

136. Brit. Mu. MSI 7274

137. Ibid., 17224

138. Paris MS 35.

139. Oxford MS 101.

140 Zafaran and the Bishopric library in Mosul.

141. Zafaran, 68.

142. Houghton Librry at Harvard MS 1971 dated
1196.

143. Brit Mus. MS 1 7274, Oxford 86 in two hundred
twelve pages.

144. Paris MS 703.

145. Zafaran MS 144.

146. Birmingham MS 65

147. Paris MSS 241, dated 1504and311 (fifteenth or
sixteenth century). Chapters 3-5 are imperfect

148. Zafaran MS 235.

149. Zafaran MS 229 dated 1365, within is a very bad
hand. Also at our library.

150. Boston (Harvard University MS 3973) and our
library.

151. Zafaran MS 111 and at our Library

152. Vatican MS 147 dated 1234.

153. British Museum MS 14731.

154. Vatican 147, Hbab and Sharfa.

155. At our library; Birmingham MSS

156. Brit. Mus. MS 21210; Vatican 41; Sharfa; Berlin
62 containig an exposition of the liturgy, and also at
Hbab.

157. Brit Mus. MSS 21210 dated 1242 and 17188
(tenth-thirteenth centuries).

158 Paris MSS 35 and 123.

159. Meddo and Hbab.

160. Sharfa MS 2-4 dated 1465.

161. Assemani B. O., 2: 218, column 2, cited by
Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, 209. (ed.)

162. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. History, 2: 215.

163. At our library; also B. O., 2 :. 218; Berlin, P. 685
of the index.

164 . At our library.

165. Vatican 41.

166. Sharfa 14.

167. Brit Mus. 21210.

168. Brit Mus. 17188.

169. At Constantinople.

170. Brit Mus. 17188.

1 71 . At our Library, London, and in Paris two copies,
one of which was transcribed in (tenth-eleventh centu-
ries), and the second in 1242. This one was translated
into Latin and published by Renaudot, 2: 391.

1 72. At Qalat al-Imra’a MS dated 1 479 and also at our
Library.

173. See Bar Salibi’s commentary on the Bible, biogra-
phy no. 209. Bar Kifa, also mentioned in the Festal Homilies
for the whole year that a monk from Takrit named John
bar Jazwi wrote a treatise on the Brazen Thurible.

174. Sharfa MS 4-1 dated 1223.

175. See above biography No. 160.

173. Ezekiel II, metropolitan of Melitene (905)

176. Michael the Great, 2: 448.

1 77. MS At our library.

174. Dionysius II (d. 909)

178. These canons are preserved in our library.

179. Michael the Great, 2: 757-758.

175-176. The Monks Rufil and Benjamin

1 80. Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal (Com-
pendium Book of Dynasties) , 285.

177. Denha the Philosopher (925)

181. Masudi, Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf Cairo, 132
and London, 156.

178. The Deacon Simon of Nisibin (950)

182. Elias bar Shinaya, 204 and 205.

183. Among these writers was also the monk Isa bar
Malke bar Shumays of Hirrin and and a resident of
Qusur. He was still living in 1540 A.D.

179. Jacob, metropolitan of Miyafarqin (967)

184. Michael the Great, 2: 759-760

1 85 The Book of Ordinations.

180. Yahya ibn Adi. (d. 974)

186. The introduction to Kitab Tahdhib al-Akhlaq
(The Book of the Training of character) by Yahya ibn
Adi which we published in Chicago in 1928.

187. Ibn al-Nadim, alFihrist, 370.

188. Assemani. Bibliotica Orientalis.

189. Bar Hebraeus, Dynasties,. 93, Misbah al-Zulma by
Ibn Kabar the Copt, Section 7, and Ibn al-Nadim.

190. Ibn al-Nadim.

191. Jamal al-Din al-Qifti, 212.

192. Ibn al-Nadim.

181. Athanasius, bishop of Qallisura (d. 982)

193. Michael the Great, 2: 760-761.

194 Preserved in our churches at Constantinople
and in Qalat al-Imra’a.

222

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

182. Matta, bishop of al-Hasasa

195. It has many copies.

196. Brit Mus. 2295, dated 1482.

183. Al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar

197. Tbn Abi Usaybia, Tabaqal al-Atibba, 1: 322.

198. Ibid.

199. Al-Fihrist, 370.

200. Ibn Abi Usaybia, 323.

184. The Edessene bishop author of the book The
Cause of All Causes

201. Brit Mus. MS 825.

202. Chabot, La Litterature Syriaque, 87.

203. From which the two copies of Zafaran 214 dated
1473, and Constantinople dated 1480, were transcribed.;
Jerusalem 128 dated 1785, Oxford 123 and 732 and
Berlin 180.

185. The Syrian Scholars of the Tenth Century

204. Chabot, 114.

205. W. Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature, 222.
204. Duval, 394.

186. Athanasius IV (d. 1002)

207. Brit Mus. 258 in the hand of his disciple
Romanus.

187. Anba John the Disciple of Marun

208. Michael the Great 2: 552; Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesi-
astical History 2: 304 and 407.

209. Mentioned by Bar Hebraeus in his book The
Treasure ofSecretsvrho criticized him for a term in which
he misplaced the vowel point of fatha.

210. Copies of which are at the Patriarchate Library
in Hims, Brit Mus. MS 14684 andjerusalem MS 42.

188. Isa ibn Zura

211. Ibn Abi Usaybia, Tabaqat al-Atibba, 1: 236.

212. Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesiastical History, 2: 277.

213. Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, 315
214 Al-Fihrist, 370.

189. Bar Qiqi (d. 1016)

215. MS dated 1749.

216. At our library; Berlin MSS 165 and 166.

217. To be found in the Beth Gaz at the church of
Damascus.

218. Birmingham MS 387.

190. The Monk Lazarus (1024)

219. Michael the Great, 2: 551-554.

191. John, metropolitan of Tur Abdin (d. 1035)

220. Jerusalem MS 1.

221 . Berlin MS 304 containing a copy of the Gospels.

192. The Monk Joseph of Melitene (d. 1058)

222. Michael the Great, 2: 574 and Bar Hebraeus,
Chronography, 238.

223. Basibrina.

193. John barShushan (d. 1072)

224. Vatican MS 119 dated 1210.

225. See the Didascalia.

226. Berlin MS 60 Sachau, also Bar Salibi’s book
Disputations in Mosul, Zafaran manuscript dating 1502
consisting of twenty pages only.

227. Jerusalem 121.

228. The Husoyos of Tur Abdin.

229. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 238.

230. Jerusalem MS 156.

231 .At our library.

232. The scrapbook of Basibrina

194. The Monk Sergius

233. A copy of this letter is at our Library which we
transcribed from the copy of Hbab written inl485.

234. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 256-257.

195. Ignatius III, metropolitan of Melitene (d. 1094)

235. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 575.

236. Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesiastical History, 2:. 439.

237. Translated badly into Arabic by some half-breed
Syrian writers. We read it in Mardin.

238. Michael die Great, 2: 544-546.

196. Said bar Sabuni (d. 1095)

239 Michael the Great, 2: 586, 587 and 590

240. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 262.

241. Michael the Great mentioned the husoyo of the
Cross in his Chronicle 2: 587.

242. The copies of the service books of the husoyos in
all of the Syrian churches in which the name of the
author is mentioned, are mosdy found in Tur Abdin.

243. Beth Gaz at the Monastery of Mar Ibrahim in
Midyat.

244. Madhedhan (Service bookforFestivals) at our church
in Egypt dated 1403.

245. Beth Gaz at the church of Mar Musa in Damascus
dated 1531 and at our Patriarchate library.

197. Dionysius ibn Modyana (d. 1120)

246. Michael the Great, Chronicled: 593 and 601,

247. The manuscripts of Tur Abdin.

198. Athanasius VI (d. 1129)

248. The Anonymous Edessan, Chronicle, 2: 302.

199. Basilius Abu Ghalib ibn Sabuni (d. 1129)

200. The Monk Michael of Marash (d.1138)

249. Lyons library MS 1.

250. L’Abbe Martin, “Les Premiers Princes Croiseset

223

History of Syriac Literature and, Sciences

Les Syries Jacobites se Jerusalem,” Journal Asiatique,
1888-1889, 33-79.

201. The Priest Eupdocus of Melitene

251. Anton Baumstark, 295.

202. Timothy, metropolitan of Karkar (d. 1143)

252. Michael the Great, Chronicle 2: 626.

253. Bar Hebraeus, Ecc. His. I: 479.

254. Assemani, al-Qirdahi and Duval.

255. It was published by al-Qirdahi in his Liber The-
sauri, 154-159.

256. Mardin MS, thirteenth century; Hbab, MS dated
1485; and Birmingham MS 83.

203. Yuhanna (John) ibn Andrew (d. 1156)

257. The British Museum, MS 1017, transcribed by a
memberof the Khayrun family about the year 1330; and
MS at our library..

258. MS 4013.

259. British Museum, MS 4407, transcribed in 1575.
A compendium of this copy is at our Library.

260. At our library, dated 1471; and Bartulli, dated
1486. There were also two madrashes by him at the Seert
Library MS 81, dated 1473.

261. Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesiastical History I, 501.

262. Zafaran MS 5; the Didascalia, and the Disputa-
tions of Bar Salibi in an old copy in Mosul.

263. The son of an army commander. He was forced
to become a catholicos in the year 1065. But he did not
care for his new office and spent time in reading and
traveling, after he had ordained bishops and invested
them with wide authority. He died in 1105. See The
Armenian Church by Ormanian, p. 142.

264. Zafaran.

265 . He was ordained in 1 1 1 3 at the age of twen ty. H e
died in 1166. See Ormanian, p. 176.

266. Bar Hebraeus, Ibid, 1 : 487.

204. The Priest Saliba of Qarikara (d. 1164)

267. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. His., 1: 501.

268. Zafaran MS 142, containing the vocalizing of the
Holy Bible

205. Ignatius II, maphrain of the East (d. 1164)

269. Bar Hebraeus, 2: 353-355.

270. Mosul and at Cambridge 2887.

206. Yuhanna, metropolitan of Mardin (d. 1165)

271 . See his biography in our book Nuzhat al-Adhhan
ft Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran ( Excursion of the Minds in the
History of al-Zafaran’s Monastery) , 52-75.

272. MS at our library, dated the sixteenth century. A
portion of these canons is at the Zafaran library.

273. Sharfa MS 4-1, dated 1223, Constantinople,
dated 1574 and our library.

207. Basilius ibn Shumanna (d. 1169)

274. Joscelin II, of Courtenay, countofEdessa.1119-
1131. (ed.)

275. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2: 633 and The
Anonymous Edessene, Chronicle, 2: 30.

276. Michael the Great, 2: 600, 628 and 639.

208. Iliyya, metropolitan of Kesum (d. 1171)

277. Michael the Great, 2: 627.

209. Dionysius Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of
Amid (d. 1171)

278. See his allusion to this point in his exposition of
The Gospel according to St. Luke 4:21.

279. Michael the Great, 2: 699 and Bar Hebraeus, Ecc.
His. I: 599 and by the same author his book Hudoye
(Nomocanon), p. 106.

280. Zafaran MS 5.

281. Cambridge MS 14-2 Gg, 306.

282. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 324.

283. Michael the Great 2: 697.

284. In the introduction to his middle commentary.is
a summarized account of what he wrote. He said,
“When I, Dionysius, Metropolitan of Amid, studied the
Books of the two Testaments, together with the writings
of the Doctors of the Church as well as those of the sages
of other nations (pagan nations) , and compiled a com-
pendium commentary in answer to the request of a
group of authorities who have suggested that I under-
take such work, and also completed the commentary on
all of the Books of the two Testaments in a short time,
you have now gotten me interested, dear brother, in
abridging this commentary and explaining it even in a
more detailed manner. You have also suggested that I
should begin with the literal commentary and follow it
with the spiritual one, which I did.”

285. Zafaran dated the fourteen century transcribed
by the Monk Saliba at the Monastery of Shiro.

286. Zafaran MSS 246 and 251.

287. Paris MS66 dated 1354.

288. At our library dated 1889

289. Al-Majalla al-Batriyarkiyya (Jerusalem, 1934-
1940).

290. MS 67, dated 1174 and MS 68, dated 1457.

291. MS 1512, dated 1179.

292. MS 12143, dated 1229.

293. Dated 1470.

294. MS 48, dated 1471. The copy of the commentary
on the Pauline Epistles is in London MS 7185, dated
fourteenth century, Jerusalem MS 50, dated 1890 and
our library. G. Diettrich claims that the commentaries
of Theodore of Mopsuestia (d. 429) have reached us
through Yeshu Dad al-Marwizi (of Maru, Merv), the
Nestorian bishop of Haditha (840-853) . Following him,
R. Harris claims that Bar Salibi copied his commentar-
ies from Bar Kifa and Yeshu Dad. Mrs. Gibson has gone
even farther to the other extreme by accusing Bar Salibi

224

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

and others of sheer plagiarism. Chabot erroneously
made Bar Kifa later than bar Salibi. We may refute their
ideas by the following:

1) Seven commentators preceded al-Marwizi. They
are Ana the pupil of St. Ephraim, Dada of Amid,
Philoxenus of Mabug, Marutha of Takrit, Jacob of
Edessa, George, bishop of the Arabs and Iyawannis of
Dara. Undoubtedly, the great number of their lost
writings was available to these two masters along with
the writings of those about whom no information has
reached us. How did these critics leam that they copied
from them in form and content? How could they con-
clude that al-Marwizi followed their course while he
enumerated many sources without mentioning the
names of their authors?

2) Why should these two, that is, Bar Kifa and Bar
Salibi have need of Theodore of Mopsuestia and al-
Marwizi while they had available the writings of ancient
eminent commentators like Hippolytus, Chrysostom
and Cyril of Alexandria? Although accidental identity
of ideas and the quoting of later authors from those who
preceded them is accepted by speculative thinkers, we
have not heard one of them accuse later writers of
plagiarism.

3) The commentaries of Theodore of Mopsuestia
were neither central nor unattainable so that they
would cheat their way into acquiring them. Even Bar
Hebraeus did not mention Theodore in his commen-
taries, except three times and only for the purpose of
falsifying some of his insipid ideas.

4) Bar Salibi’s commentary on the two Testament is
three times as long as that of al-Marwizi. Is it then
credible that a great and brilliant scholar like Bar Salibi
would confine himself to the commen taries of al-Marwizi
in both form and contentwhile the historians of his own
denomination only mentioned him accidentally? Re-
garding the commentaries of Bar Kifa we do not possess
them atpresentin order to draw a comparison between
them and those of Bar Salibi.

295. Birmingham MS 539 dated 1929

296. Berlin MS 26 (186) dated 1565

297. Mentioned in the list of his writings.

298. Michael the Great, 2: 699

299. Published by Mingana.

300. Zafaran MS 5.

301. Birminhgam MS 215.

302. Vatican MS 28.

303. The index of his writings

304. MS at the Church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin

305. Michale the Great, 2: 631 and 651

306. Birmingham MS 152

307. Cambridge MS 2016.

308. Zafaran MS 5. Kiwark (Gregory III, was a bishop
and assistant to the Catholicos Akim in the year 1069.
He was dismissed in 1072.

309. Mosul MS.

310. Michael the Great, 2: 627.

311. The list of his writings.

312. The list of his writings and Baumstark, 297.

313. Basibrina MS dated fourteenth century and our
library.

314. Jerusalem MS 107 and Zafaran.

315. The index of his writings.

316. Paris MS 113.

317 Book of the Order of Ordinations.

318. Michael the Great, 2: 532.

319. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 2: 324.

320. Bar Hebraeus, Ecclesiastical History. 2, p. 351.

321. Florence MS 40.

322. Baumstark, p. 298, quoting Florence MS.

325. Paris MS75.

326. Oxford MS 101 andBoston (Houghton Library
at Harvard) MS 2973.

327. Michael the Great, 2: 699.

210. Abu Ghalib, bishop of Jihan (d. 1177)

328. P. 175 of his book.

329. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 302.

330 Another copy is in Birmingham MS 118, dated
1919.

331 Zafaran MS 15.

332 P. 661 of the index.

211. Ignatius Roman us, metropolitan of Jerusalem
(d.1183)

333. See above biography No. 200.

334. Cambridge MS 82-3 DD.

212. The Monk Aaron

335. Sharfa MS 9-32 and at our library.

213. Ibn Wahbun (d. 1193)

336. Bar Hebraeus, Ecc. Hist. 1:553-555.

337. Sharfa MS 4-1 , Constantinople, and our library.

338. Our Library, Kabiyya and Fayruza, dated 1486.

339. Didascalia.

340. Basibrina, dated the fourteenth century, and at
our library.

341. Ibid.

214. Mar Michael the Great (d. 1199)

342. Chronicle of the Anonymous Edessene, 11, 315
and the story of the monk Ibrahim at our library.

343. Zafaran and Vatican MS 51.

344. Zafaran, Sadad, Amid, Jerusalem MS 210 and
the British Museum, MS 4402. Another abridged copy
is at the Borgia Museum in Rome.

345. V. Langlois, Chronique de Michel le Grand, 1868.
(ed.)

346. Cambridge, MS 82-3.

347 Michael the Great, Chronicle 2: 699.

348. The Anonymous Edessene, Chronicle 2: 312.

349. Bar Hebraeus, Hudoye (Nomocanons) , 1 12, and
by the same author, Ecc. Hist., 1: 543.

225

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

350. Michael the Great, Ibid. 2: 701.

35 1 . Two copies are at our library. There is also a copy
in Fayruza together with eleven husoyos in the handwrit-
ing of Jurjis son of Qarman, metropolitan of Hardin,
Hama and Tripoli, dated 1486.

352. Michael the Great, Ibid., 2: 314-315.

353. Bar Hebraeus, Ecc. Hist 2: 351.

354. Zafaran MS 206, dated the fourteenth century
and at our Library.

355. At the church of Azekh and at our library.

356. Michael the Geat, Ibid. 2: 72.

215. The Physicians of the Twelfth Century

357. The Anonymous Edessene, Chronicle 2: 295, and
308-309.

216. The Bishop John David of Amid (d. 1203)

217. Ignatius Sahdo, metropolitan of Jerusalem

358. Jerusalem MS 27, our library and the Anony-
mous Edessene, Chronicle 2: 308 and 325.

218. Ibrahim, bishop of Tallbsam (1207)

219. Gregorius Jacob, maphrianof he East (d. 1214)

359. Berlin MS 151 .Jerusalem, Hims, Tur Abdin and
other libraries.

220. Yeshu Saftana, “He of the Big Lip” (d. 1214)

360. MSS 206 and 209.

361. Paris MS 4-3.

362. It had two copies, one at Basibrina, dated 1552,
and the other at Baminim, dated 1574.

221. The Patriarch John XII (d. 1220)

363. Paris MSS 40 and 54.

364. Jerusalem MS 161.

365. Jerusalem MSS 160 and 161, Paris, MSS 16 and
178, Birmingham 77 and 423.

366. Zafaran MS 15, St. Matthew Monastery MS and
Berlin MS 511, Birmingham 77 and Diyarbakr MS.

367. Paris MS 16.

368. Paris MS 76.

369. Jerusalem MS 97.

370. Rome MS 26, dated 1484.

371. Rahmani, Les Liturgies Orientates el Occidentals
(Sharfa Lebanon, 1924).

222. Yuhanna (John) of Tiflis (d. 1221)

372. He is Ala al-Din, son of Kaykhosru, son of Kilij
Arslan, Sultan of Rum (1219- 1 238) . He was also called
the “Sultan of the World” for his determination, power,
chastity and awe-inspiring appearance. See Bar
Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, pp. 407 and 437.
Gurgis Warda mentioned in some of his odes that the
city of Tiflis suffered a calamity in the year 1226. See
Cambridge MS 1983.

223. Hasnun of Edessa (d. 1227)

373. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 456 and by the
same author Tarikh Mukhtasar al- Duwal, 442.

224. Gabriel of Edessa (d. 1227)

373. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 457.

225. Theodore of Antioch, the Philosopher

374. Bar Hebraeus, Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, 477-
478. See Matti Moosa, “Theodore al-Antabi: Alim wa
FaylasufSuryani min al-Qarn al-Thalith AsharfiBalatal-
Imperator Frederick al-Thami,” Beirut Times (Los An-
geles, no. 355, June 17-24, and no. 356, June 24July 1,
1993).

226. TheMetropolitanJacobibnShakkoko (d. 1231)

375. Assemani, Bibliotica Orientalis 2: 23, Wright, p.
246, Duval, 399 and Chabot, 122. Msgr. Rahmani has
erred in fixing his date in the year 1161. See Rahmani,
Les Liturgies, 397. Baumstark has correctly related his
name and date but not his nickname. See Baumstark,
294. There are many copies of this liturgy.

227. The Edesene Chronicler (1234)

376. The Latin introduction, 5.

377. The Anonymous Edessene, Chronicle 2, 324.
[J. B. Chabot published the Syriac textin two volumes in
Corpus Scriptorum Orientalium (Catholic University of
Louvain, 1916) . The part of the Chronicle relating to the
Crusades was translated into English by A. S.Tritton and
annotated by H. A. R. Gibb and published in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society (1933), in two parts, 69-101 and
102-305. Rev. Albert Abouna translated the second
volume of the Chronicle into Arabic with useful annota-
tions and published it under the title Tarikh al-Ruhawi
al-Majhul ( Baghdad, 1 986) . A very loose Arabic transla-
tion mingled with the chronicles of Michael the Great
and Bar Hebraeus was undertaken by Rev. Ishaq Aramala
and published under the tide al-Hurub al-Salibiyya Ji al-
Athar al-Suryaniyya (Beirut, 1929). ed.]

228. Jacob of Bartulli, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s
Monastery

378. Bar Hebraeus, Ecc. Hist. 2: 411.

379. Vatican MS 154, dated 1622 and MS at our
library dated 1612.

380. Brit. Mus. MS 2 1 454. The first part is old and the
second part is commented on by the Patriarch Pilate
according to an old copy in the handwriting of Bar
Hebraeus.

381. Berlin MS 331.

382. Oxford MS 199, dated 1594.

383 Gottingen. MS 18.

384. MS 4059 containing rhetoric, poetry and lan-
guage.

385. MS 37l containing four treatises of the first
volume.

226

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

386. MS 1 05 the first volume only.

387 MS 233 containing the metrical grammar and
the second volume.

388. Containing the two volumes, dated 1910.

389. Containing the fourth treatise and the second
volume.

390. Istephan al-Duwayhi al-Manara, 2, 166.

391. See above, biography No. 1 79, 134

392. Bar Hebraeus, Semhe ( The Book of Rays) .

229. The Priest Yeshu Thomas of HisnKifa (d. 1248)

393. According to a liturgy in Beirut and Bar Hebraeus,
Eccl. Hist. I: 665.

394. The introduction to the Chronicleot' Michael the
Great published in 1870-1871.

230. Gregorius John, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s
Monastery and Azerbayjan

395. Cambridge MS 2887 and No. 37. It is also
mentioned in Rahmani, Les Liturgies, 398.

396. No. 841

397. The Books of the Prophets No. 11.

231. Basilius of Basibrina (1254)

398. The Husoyos of Tur Abdin

232. The Maphrian Saliba the Edessene (d. 1258)

399. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. Hist. 2: 411.

233. The Patriarch John ibn al-Madani (d.1263)

400. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. Hist. I: 699-743 and 2: 407-
415.

401. Oxford MS Huntl.

402. In West New York and at our library.

403. Al-Majalla al-Batriyarkiyya ( The Patriarchal Maga-
zine), 2: 172, 201 and 268.

404. Ibid. 2: 108 after a copy in Azekh.

405. MS at our library.

234. Dionysius Saliba, bishop of Kaludhya (Claudia ),
(d. 1273)

406. MS 63 at the Sayyida (The Virgin) Monastery.

235. Dioscorus Theodoras, metropolitan of Hisn
Ziyad (d. 1275)

407. A book containinga general collection of husoyos
at the church of Diyarbakr in the handwriting of
Dioscorus transcribed in 1225, a Gospel at Zafaran MS
3 and Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. His. I: 725 and 757-759.

408. Bar Hebraeus, Ibid. I: 695.

236. Mar Gregorius Abu al-Faraj of Melitene,
maphrian of the East, known as Bar Hebraeus (d.1286)

409. See his metrical biography by the metropolitan
Gabriel of Bartulli and Haji Khalifa, Kashf al-Zunun,
380-381.

410. Baumstark likened him unto the famous Ger-

man philosopher Albertus Magnus (d. 1280); indeed,
he preferred him to Magnus.

411. Zafaran MS 240 containing Bar Hebraeus’s,
Storehouse of Secrets.

412. See his metrical biographyand a tract abouthim
by the Deacon Bahnam Habbo Kanni in the Florence
MS 208.

413. Majallat al-Kuliyya al-Amerikiyya, Beirut, 1927.
On this point, see Matti Moosa, “Studies in Syriac
Literature,” The Muslim Worlds : 4 (1968) 322-323.

414. See his English introduction.

415. Florence library.

416. Sachau MS 326 and a second magnificent copy
MS 110, dated 1645, and yet a third copy MS 134, dated
1626; London MS 12589; Oxford MS 1, dated 1498,
Birmingham, Mingana MS 469, dated the fifteenth
century; Zafaran MS 147, dated 1569 and our Library,
dated 1567.

417. Florence MS, dated 1 388; Vatican MS 1 68, dated
the fourteenth century; Beirut, dated the fourteenth
century; Paris MSS 210, dated 1404 and 212, dated the
sixteenth century; Hasaka (Jazira) MS., dated 1405;
Berlin MSS 81, dated 1403 and 1579; Cambridge MS
2068, dated the fifteenth century; Jerusalem MS 135,
dated 1590; Zafaran which is both Syriac and Garshuni
(Arabic in Syriac script) MS 4, dated 1674.

418. It was not translated by Daniel ibn al-Hattab as
Rev. Cheikho has erroneously thought.

419. Vatican MS 169 dated 1330 transcribed by the
monk-priest Yeshu al-Najjar al- Bulaydiri of Hisn Kifa,
and Vatican MS 145 dated the fifteenth century; Paris
MS 213 dated 1353; London MS 1017 dated 1364;
Zafaran MS consists of a new and neat copy in the
handwriting of the Maphrian Sulayman dated 1509;
Oxford MSS 467 dated 1575 and

521 dated 1590 in the handwriting of Patriarch
Pilate; Berlin MS 327 of the sixteenth century and
Cambridge MS 2 — 7 dated 1603. [The number of the
this MS is not clear in the original text. It could be MS
2007. ed.]

420. Florence MS 186, dated 1340, in the handwrit-
ing of the monk Najm.

421. Oxford Hunt MS 1, dated 1498, in the handwrit-
ing of the monk-priest Yusuf al- Guiji (the Georgian).

422. MS 47, dated 1818.

423. Birmingham, Mingana MSS 281 and 326, con-
taining the first three books.

424. MS 33, dated 1389, in the handwriting of the
priest David son of Abu al-Muna of Qilleth.

425. Birmingham MS 23.

426. Baumstark called it Buch der Ware der Waren (The
Merchandise of Merchandises). [See Baumstark, Geschichte
der syrischen Literatur, 3l7.,ed. Janssens called it The
Treatise of Treatises. [For the French translation see
Herman F. Janssens, L’ Entretien de la Sagesse (Paris,
1937). ed.]

427. Cambridge MS 2003; Florence MS 200, dated

227

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

the fourteenth century;Jerusalem MS 231, dated 1574.

428. Birmingham MS 45.

429. British Museum MS 101 7 in the handwriting of
Bar Khayrun, and not in the year 1364 as thought by
Janus.

430. We found it in Mardin and from itwe copied our
own version.

431. He wrote this book after 1275. There are three
copies of it: one at the Rockefeller University in Chi-
cago, transcribed in 1290; the other in London: MS
1017 and Cambridge MS 2005, dated 1579; and two
recent copies: one at our library and the other at Sharfa.

432. Published by the monk Louis Chekho in 1898.

433. Published by the priest Bulus Sbat.

434. Bar Hebraeus, Chronograph y, 220.

435. Florence MS 185.

436. MS at Kandanat (Malabar), dated 1547, in the
handwriting of the monk-priest Tuma (Thomas) of
Klaybin; Paris MS 249, dated 1633; Vatican MSS 51,
dated 1654, and 191, and a copy at our library, dated
1907.

437. Furlani, The Psychology of Bar Hebraeus, 1931, 51.

438. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 219. This is based
on the parable of the talents in the Gospel according to
St Matthew 25:14-28.

439. He is criticized for incorporating in this book a
canon allegedly attributed to the Council of Nicea. See
Part 7, Chapter 1, Canon 1.

440. Script. Yet. nova coll. Vol. X. Bedjan quoted Mai
in the introduction to the Hudoye, 3-4.

441. MSS 207 and 208, dated 1391. Other copies are
in Mar Awgayn Monastery, dated 1354; Berlin, Peterman
MS 23, dated 1373, in the handwriting of the monk
Daniel of Mardin; the diocesan home library in Mosul
dated 1483; Paris MS 226; Oxford MS, dated 1498;
SharfaMS 4-4, dated the fifteen th century; Birmingham
MS 1, dated 1573; and Edessa MS dated 1575.

442. MS 99; Oxford MS 490, dated 1323, in the
handwriting of the monk Saliba Khayrun, and MS 681 ,
dated 1332 in the handwriting of the monk Yeshu from
the Shab village; and MS at our library, in the handwrit-
ing of the monk Bahnam of Arbo. [a village in Tur
Abdin[ There is also a copy at the library in Edessa in a
neat handwriting, dated the sixteenth century.

[The Ethikon was translated into beautiful classical
Arabic by the late Mar Gregorius Bulus Bahnam,
metropolitanof Mosul and Basra and published by the
Gharb press in Qamishli, Syria in 1967. The translator
wroteavery lengthyintroduction in ninety-five pages, in
which he discussed mysteries in the East, especially in
the Syrian Church. He showed the influence of the Book
of the Holy Hierotheos on Bar Hebraeus and other Syrian
writers. What is important is Bahnam’s attempt to show
that many mystical ideas in Hierotheos have parallels in
the philosophy of Ibn Sina, although Ibn Sina (d. 1037)
preceded Bar Hebraeus in time, and that there is no
evidence that the book of Hierotheos was available to

medieval Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina. It is prob-
ably that the ideas contained in Hierotheos, which date
back to the sixth century, must have been known by
Christian scholars in the East, and in turn, influenced
Muslim scholars], (ed.)

443. Oxford MS 561 dated 1479.

444. MS dated about 1498 and another copy at the
Edessene library, dated 1360.

445. It was translated into Arabic by the two monks
Mubarak al-Mazraani and Mubarak al-Dirani. [There is
also an English translation of this book with portions of
the Ethikon. See A.J. Wensinck, Bar Hebraeus ’s Book of the
Dove, Together with Some Chapters from His Ethikon, Brill,
Leiden, 1919. Wensinck wrote a very comprehensive
and extremely important introduction in which he
showed the influence of Ibn Sina and Abu Hamid al-
Ghazzali on Bar Hebraeus. He even produced state-
ments and terms from Bar Hebraeus’ Ethikon and al-
Ghazzali’s Ihya Ulum al-Din to show this influence. The
Book of the Dove was also translated into Arabic by Metro-
politan Zakka Iwas (later patriarch) with the Syriac text
facing the Arabic translation, and published in Baghdad,
1974). His introduction is a summary of Wensinck’s
introduction, ed.]

446. In the first half of the twelfth century.

447. Vatican MSS 166 and 167. They con tain both the
Chronography and the Ecclesiastical History and their ap-
pendages. The first one was written before 1357.

448. MS Hunt 1, dated 1498, whose narrative extends
to the time of Bar Wuhayb. 1 1 is in the handwriting of the
monk Denha Sayfi of Salh. Also, it contains the
Chronography MS 211, dated at the end of the fifteenth
century and containing the world history.

449 Jerusalem MS 211 dated at the end of the fif-
teenth century. It contins the Chronography..

450. Florence MS 93, dated the fourteenth century.

451 Paris MS 297.

452. Florence MS 208, dated 1292.

453. Dated 1298.

454. MS 3335, dated 1332, in the handwriting of the
deacon Nisan the Nestorian.

455. May 22, 1336, transcribed by the monk Najm.

456. MS 21 8, dated 1477.

457. MS Hunt 1.

458. MS 3963, dated 1548.

459. Dated bout the yearl550.

460. MS dated 1 290. In his French book The Key to the
Aramaic Language, 1 905 which he wrote in his youth and
motivated by arrogance, Alphonse Mingana criticized
all the (Syriac) grammar books lumping Semhe of Bar
Hebraeus with them. It would have been better for him
not to denigrate the excellence of the masters and
preservers of the Syriac language from whom he picked
up the gleanings which gave him fame.

461. MS 298, dated 1360.

462. MS dated 1371.

463. MS 33, dated 1473, in the handwriting of the

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History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

monk Nuh (Noah) who later became patriarch. Also M.
325, dated 1584, in fine script, and the Edessene MS,
written in clear script, dated 1589.

464. MS 133.

465. MS 261, dated 1585.

466. MS dated 1586.

467. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. Hist. 2: 443.

468. Ibid.

469. Haji Khalifa. Kashf al-Zunun, 380-381.

470. MS Gotha 9998.

471. MS 1017, dated about 1330.

472. MS dated 1654, and MSS 227 and 21 1, and the
Edessene MS containing The Pupils of the Eyes, dated
1766, together with the commentary on Hierotheos.

473. Qirdahi’s ode is at our library and the second
one by Yeshu Yab is at the Monastery of al-Sayyida MS
309-313, Cambridge MS 2814 and Mosul MS 85.

474. MS 1, dated 1498.

475. MS 365.

476. Oxford MS 155.

477. MS at our library.

478. Paris MS 71, dated 1454.

479. The Service book Supplications for Principal
Feasts at the Zafaran Monastery and also at our library.

480. Sharfa MS 20-18, dated the fifteenth century;
Paris MS 274, dated 1670. This book was translated into
English by Ernest A. Wallace Budge in 1897.

481. AlrMajalla al-Batriyarkiyya, 2: 228.

482. MS at our library.

483. See his Eccl. Hist. 2: 457.

484. See his metrical biography by Metropolitan
Gabriel of Bartulli.

CHAPTER THREE -Biographies of Learned
Men and Writers of the Third Period 1290-1931

237. Abu Nasr of Bartulli (d. 1290)

1. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 51 7

2. Zafaran MS 213.

3. In this ode he described Abu Nasr of Bartulli as a
doctor of profound knowledge. From it, we transcribed
our copy in 1910.

4. There is also a new copy at the Berlin library MS
178, and I do not know whether it is complete or not.

238. Abu al-Hasan ibn Mahruma (d. 1299)

5. The library of the University of Chicago and at our
library.

6. See Ibn al-Fuwati al-Baghdadi, al-Hawadith al-Jamia,
p. 441 . [ The book of Ibn Kammuna has been translated
into English and editd by Moshe Perlmann and pub-
lished under the title Sad b. Mansur ibn Kammuna’s
Examination of the Inquiries into the Three Faiths; a Thir-
teenth Century Essay in Comparative Religiom (Berkeley:
California University Press, 1967. (ed.)]

239. The Metropolitan Gabriel of Bartulli (d. 1300)

7. Oxford MS 74 dated 1673 and Ms at our library
transcribed from the Bartulli copy.

8. Berlin MS 152, Vatican MS 33, Leeds, MS 2353,
Jerusalem MS 94, the Diocesan home in Hims and the
Church of the Virgin in Qaraqosh. It is translated into
French by Renaudot.

9. MS at our library.

10. British Museum MS 101 7 dated about 1330 and a
MS in West New York.

240. The Ascetic Turn a (Thomas) of Hah

11. Jerusalem MS 100.

12. The Husoyosoi the Saints at the Monastery of Mar
Malke.

241. Barsoum al-Safi, the younger brother of Bar
Hebraeus (d. 1307)

13. MS at our library.

14. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 2, 487.

242. The Monk Yeshu ibn Kilo

15. Paris MS 641.

16. MS at the Bzummar Monastery in Lebanon.

243. Patriarch Michael II (d. 1312)

17. MS at our library.

244. Cyril, bishop of Hah (d. 1333)

18. The Diocesan home in Hims and Berlin MS
Sachau 151, Cambridge MS 2887, Mosul and others.

19. Beth Gaz (Treasure of Melodies) at Mar Ibrahim
Monastery in Midyat.

245. Ibn Wuhayb (d. 1333)

20. As recorded in a Gospel transcribed in 1314
which we have found in Qellith.

21. MS at our library and Birmingham MS 100.

22. Jerusalem MSS 137 and 138, Diyarbakr and Bir-
mingham MSS 92 and 369 and Berlin, p. 795 of the
catalogue and the interpretation of the Arabic alphabet
in the MS at Edessa dated 1588.

23. MS at our library.

24. Jerusalem MSS 95, 97 and 99, Berlin MS 152,
Zafaran MSS 37 and 166, Paris MS 74, Vatican MS 33,
Oxford MS 66 and MSS at Basibrina and Banimim.
There are also two copies at Edessa and one at Qaraqosh.

25. Zafaran MS 238.

246. The Monk Yeshu ibn Khayrun (d. 1335)

26. Khayrun not Habrun as read by Assemani and
those who copied him. See the British Museum MS
1017. At the Vatican library there is an ode in the twelve-
syllabic meter of mediocre quality composed in 1329
which I think belongs to the monk Yeshu ibn Khayrun
and not to the Patriarch Ismail nicknamed Fayd al-Din
(1333-1366) as has been erroneously thought by its

229

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

publisher, Qirdahi. In this MS the year of the Greeks
642 (331 A.D.) is the correct one, not 1642 (1331 A.D.).
The composer meant that Lent was instituted in 331
A.D. and that the adversary of Lent opposed him in the
year 1329.

27. See his father’s statement on the margin of the
Hudoye (Nomocanon) at the Monastery of Mar Awgayn.

28. MSS at Tur Abdin.

29. Cambridge MS 2019, dated 1452 in twenty-six
pages.

30. MS at Midyat, our library and SharfaMS 19, dated
fourteenth century.

31. Paris MS 276, MSS at Hbab and Azekh, in which
this ode is ascribed to him and from it we transcribed
our copy.

32. MS at Azekh.

33. Florence MS 26.

247. Master Saliba ibn Khayrun (d. 1 340 )

34. British Museum MS 302.

35. Vatican MS 37.

36. MS at Midyat. Of the composers of metrical
dismissory prayers in the twelve- syllabic meter we may
mention the priest Hasan ibn Zaruqa of Mosul, who I
think, lived at the end of the fourteenth and the begin-
ning of the following century. We found the oldest copy
of his dismissory prayers in a Beth Gaz at Mar Ibrahim
Monastery written in 1466. See also Berlin MS 151. It
begins thus, “O, God who dwellest in the highest.”
Other composers are the priest Isa Shaddad al-Jazri (MS
Diyarbakr dated 1495) and the monk Abdo Qarunq of
Hah the year 1504. His dismissory prayer, arranged
according to the alphabet, is very poor.

248. The Deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli (d. 1345)

37. Jerusalem MS 109 and the Edessene library at
Aleppo.

38. Bar Hebraeus, Eccl. Hist. 2: 505.

249. Metropolitan Abu al-Wafa of Hisn Kifa

250. The Monk Ibrahim of Mardin (d. 1365)

39. MS at our library.

251. Yusuf (Joseph) ibn Gharib, metropolitan of
Amid (d. 1375)

40. MS in Tur Abdin and at our library.

252. The Monk Daniel of Mardin (d. 1382)

41. Berlin MS 23.

42. This tract was published by Nau in The Ascent of the
Mind.

43. Florence MS 298.

44. Vatican MS 636 in the handwriting of the author.
In the introduction he stated: “I have been asked by
some concerned people to abridge for them the book of
the Maphrian [Bar Hebraeus]; may God sanctify his
soul, in a way which would make it easier to recite and

not difficult to comprehend. So I arranged my abridge-
ment in parts and fixed every canon under the name of
its author. For, if quoting of sources was supported by
evidence, it would be more trustworthy and much
sought after. I marked the canon considered to be
veritable and made in accordance with (although the
name of its author is not known) by the following:
“Quoted from Bar Hebraeus,” and “From God I ask
assistance and success.” He closed the book by stating
that, “This is how I thought it best to summarize some
parts of church canons and civil ordinances. He who
seeks further investigation should read the book of
Hudoye (Nomocanon) by our master the Maphrian.”
This book contains comments by the monk David of
Hims. Daniel alluded to this information in his book
Usui al-Din in Part II, Chapter 1 .

45. Berlin MS 23.

46. Florence MS, dated 1340.

47. Leeds library MS 2386, dated 1491; the library of
the Coptic patriarchate MS 357, dated 1 750 and MS 505.
(In this MS his name is mentioned as Ibn al-Hattab);
Jerusalem MS 136 and MS at our library.

48. Leeds MS 2387.

49. In our biography of Daniel, we, too, called him
Ibn al-Hattab, following the manuscripts. See al-Majalla
al-Balriyarkiyya 1: 242. In his introduction to Bar
Hebraeus’s The Lamp of the Sanctuaries in the Berlin
Syriac MS 81 , Daniel stated: “Know that the nobleness of
a thing can be gained in some respect from the baseness
of its opposite. If the errors in this science regarding the
fundamentals of religion are considered blasphemy
and heresy, it is imperative that to achieve the truth in
it is the most noble thing. If this is established, then we
should state that: when man is notin a position in which
his life in this world could be wholesome without the
veracity of his belief and acting according to the com-
mands of his religious law, it is necessary for him to
investigate thoroughly the rectitude of his belief and to
act according to the known commands imposed by it,
lest he confuses truth with falsehood and wrong with
right, with the result that he would be drowned in the
vast ocean of error. Consequently, he would lose hope
and action as well as the life to come. If this was so, it is
a must for the Christian to learn some of the science of
logic in order to be able to comprehend this book. And
since the science of the fundamentals of religion for the
Christian are predicated on the principles of dialectics,
it is imperative to know these principles first.”

253. Patriarch Ibrahim ibn Gharib (d. 14120

50. See The Book of Hudoye (Nomocanon) transcribed
in 1355 at Mar Awgayn Monastery.

51. MS at Banimim dated 1584 and at our library.

52. MS at Basibrina.

254. Philoxenus the Scribe (d. 1412)

53. Florence MS 136.

230

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

255. The Priest Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425)

54. The Book of Life and a tract appended to Bar
Hebraeus’s Chronograph) i, not the year 1400 as Qirdahi
has erroneously stated.

55. MSatour library and the British Museum MS 825.

56. P.113.

57. MSS at Meddo, our library and Paris 276.

58. MS at Basibrina.

59. A copy of it is in Cambridge MS 1987.

256. The Priest Sahdo

60. MS at the village of Masarte dated 1482.

257. The Priest simon of Amid (d. 1450)

61. MS at Zafaran.

258. Qawma the Patriarch of Tur Abdin (d. 1454)

62. Know that in 1293 a rift occurred in the church
with the result that one patriarch was installed for
Antioch and another one for Mardin. In 1445 the two
patriarchs united. In 1364 the patriarchate ofTur Abdin
was established because of a disagreement with the
patriarch of Mardin. In 1495, the patriarch of Tur
Abdin and his bishops offered their allegiance to the
Patriarchal See of Antioch only to secede once more
until finally they became obedient (surrendered) to the
legitimate patriarch of Antioch.

259. Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454)

63. MSS at Tur Abdin and Mardin.

64. Jerusalem MS 14.

65. P. 68.

66. Jerusalem MS 94, Vatican MS 23, Cambridge MS
2887, MS at Hims and MS at our library.

67. MS at the library of SL Matthew’s Monastery, MS
at our library, an imperfect copy at Birmingham MS 402
and two copies at Qaraqosh dated 1588 and 1725 re-
spectively.

68. Paris MS 276.

69. The story of Mar Basus published by Chabot in
1893.

70. Baumstark, 257.

71. British Museum, MS 2308, Berlin MS 015, Bir-
mingham MS 77, Jerusalem MSS 88 and 162, Diyarbakr
MS and at our library.

72. MSS at Diyarbakr and Birmingham.

73. Jerusalem MS 157.

74. MS at Mar Awgayn Monastery.

75. Ibid.

260. Barsoum Madani, maphrian of the East. (d.
1455)

76. MS at the Syrian Church in Qaraqosh.

77. Birmingham MS 480.

78. Oxford MS 444.

261. The Monk Gharib of Maninim (d. 1476)

79. MS at Mar Iliyya (Elijah) in Hbab dated 1474.

80. MS at Basibrina.

262. Patriarch Aziz Ibn al-Ajuz (Bar Sobto ) (d. 1481 )

81. MS at the Church of al-Tahira (The Virgin) in
Mosul, MS at our library, Birmingham MSS 49 and 79,
Berlin MS 196, Brit. Mus. MS 2308, which is imperfect.

82. Sharfa MS 20-30 and at our library.

83. MSS at the Brit. Mus. and Berlin.

84. Oxford MS 412, Zafaran and at our library.

263. The Monk Malke Saqo (d. 1490)

85. MS at Basibrina, Paris MS 377, Birmingham MS
501 dated the sixteenth century.

86. MS at Basibrina.

87. MS at Mar Awgayn Monastery.

264. Master Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1492)

88. MS at Basibrina.

89. MS at Basibrina dated 1477.

90. Birmingham MS 77.

91. According to the service books of the churches of
Kabiyya and Qellith, dated 1504 and 1553 respectively.
Commenting on these orders, he stated that when he
noticed that the old orders were only for eight Sundays
and that they were repeated unsystematically, and that
some churches used shorter orders, he undertook the
compilation and arrangement of twenty-four orders
from many books and copies.

265. Patriarch Yuhanna ibn Shay Allah (d. 1493)

92. Dawud had knowledge of astronomy. He was still
living in 1485.

93. MS at Diyarbakr dated 1 520 and MS at our library.

94. Cambridge MS 3-82.

266. Metroplitan Gurgis of Basibrina (d. 1495)

95. The Book of Life at Basibrina and a deed at the
library of St. Mark’s Monastery No. 1 dated June, 1493.

96. MSSatlsfes, Mar Malke’sMonastery and Basibrina.

97. An imperfect copy which we found at the Monas-
tery of Mar Malke.

267. The Monk Dawud (David) of Hims (1500 ?)

98. In 1930 we wrote and published a detailed biog-
raphy of Dawud in Syriac.

99. MSS at Tur Abdin.

100. MS in our library transcribed from a copy in
Midyat in 1483.

101. Copies of the Elhikon in Beirut, Diyarbakr and at
our library.

102. Published byRahmaniin his StudiaSyriaca, 1:41-
43.

103. Zafaran MS 192.

104. Jerusalem MS 47, St. Matthew’s Monastery MS
44 dated 1468.

105. Boston (Houghton Library at Harvard Univer-

231

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

sity). MSS 4002 dated 1675 and 4003 dated 1755.

106. MS at the Cross Monastery in Bethel and MS at
our library.

1 07. Paris MS 209, Oxford MS 361 , Sharfa MS 7-8 and
MS at our library.

1 08. MS at Constantinople, MS at our library and MS
at the Edessene library.

109. Sharfa MS 7-7.

110. See above, the chapter on the Books of Liturgies.

111. MS at our library transcribed from a copy in
Midyat in 1483.

112 MS at Banimim in a Beth Gaz (Treasury of
Melodies ) and MS at our library.

113. Ibid.

114. Despite his great linguistics and learning, al-
Subawi made a mistake by deliberately imitating in his
poetry that of al-Hariri. If you free his verse from the
ornamentation which has burdened it, you would then
appreciate his literary and poetical proficiency. The
same thing could be said about Khamis Qirdahi.

115. MS at our library, Diyarbakr and Sharfa 7-9.

268. The Priest Addai of Basibrina (d. 1502)

116. MSS at Basibrina.

117. MS at the Church of Inhil.

118. Ibid.

119. MS at the Church of Hbab.

120. Our evidence of the attribution of historical
tracts to him is as follows:

1) The manuscript of Bar Hebraeus’s Ecclesiastical
History completed by the monk Denha Sayfi around
1498 ends with the biography of Bar Wuhayb, which
indicates that the additions to that history are new. So
does the Cambridge MS 3-18 transcribed at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century. It is appended by a tract
in another handwriting along with some historical er-
rors. The writer would have never made such errors if he
was a contemporary to the events. Most particular of
these events, is his confused narrative about the conse-
cration of the patriarchs who succeeded Patriarch
Nimrud.

2) The scarcity of the chronicles of the patriarchs in
the fourteenth century and the loss of his (Addai’s)
chronicle.

3) The author was from Tur Abdin because of his
comprehensive knowledge of the secular and ecclesias-
tical affairs of Tur Abdin and his brief treatment of the
biographies of the patriarchs of Antioch in Sis and al-
Sham (Syria) because they were remote from his native
country. Furthermore, there is his prejudiccial account
of the whole fourteenth century against the patriarch-
ate ofMardin from which the SeeofTur Abdin seceded.

4) He is a native of Basibrina because he relates in the
third tract insignificant events connected to his village
with the exclusion of other countries of which he knew
little, and his using of no fewer than twenty colloquial
terms peculiar to Basibrina only.

5) He is the priest Addai because he related in detail
the chronicles of his family and the things that hap-
pened to him and his companions during their pilgrim-
age tojerusalem, whether they were significant or not.
Most of these chronicles are recorded in the Book of Life
which he personally wrote. (He may have withheld his
name because of his harsh criticism of some of church
dignitaries of his time). However, the first and the
second tracts, which consist of ten pages, may have been
written by the priest Isaiah of Basibrina.

Finally, what should be observed about the appendix
to die history of the patriarch is that the Florence MS
136 and Vatican MS 387, dated 1761 , are slighdy differ-
ent from the published text and are free from redun-
dancies which cause us to believe that the author of the
published text is our priest Addai. It is not unlikely that
some writer of his time changed this text by relating in
detail the biography of the Patriarch Bar Shay Allah and
exaggerating his praise, which stretched this text to five
pages.

121. Jerusalem MS 211 and Oxford MS 167.

122. In 1505 an anonymous priest from Habsnas
composed a good ode in the heptasyllabic meter on the
invasion of the two princes of Hisn Kifa and al-Sawar of
Tur Abdin, which we have copied from a manuscript in
Meddo.

269. Metropolitan Sarjis (Segius) of Hah (d. 1508)

123. MSS in Jerusalem and at our library.

124. Oxford MS 361, MSS at Diyarbakr, Mar Awgayn
Monastery, at our library and Zafaran MS 248.

270. Patriarch Nuh the Lebanese (d. 1509)

125. MS at our library, Vatican MS 174 dated 1600,
Paris MS 180 dated the eighteenth century which con-
tains some of his poems.

271. The Monk Aziz of Midyat (d. 1510)

126. MS at the Sayyida (The Virgin) Monastery.

272. Patriarch Masud of Zaz (d 1512)

127 Jerusalem MS 112.

128. MS 130.

129 Birmingham MS 91, dated 1903.

130. Zafaran MS.

131. MS at our library.

132. Paris MS 16.

273. Jacob I, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1517)

133. According to his own story written in some
manuscripts.

134. According to a comment by the Metropolitan
Yusuf al-Gurji.

135. According to a history in a Gospel in Azekh.

136. Related by the priest Shimun (Simon) of Hirrin
in a copy of the Gospel in Mardin.

137. At the Monastery of the Cross in Bethel.

232

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

138. According to a grammar book in MidyaL

2*74. Yusuf al-Gurji, metropolitan of Jerusalem (d.
1537)

1 39. According to the account he wrote about himslef
found in a copy of the Gospel at the Church of
Diyarbakr.

140. See his biography by this writer in al-Majalla al-
Batriyarkiyya, 1, 145-152.

141. The manuscripts of the Church of Hisn Kifa.

142. Oxford MS 1.

143. They are to be found in an old medicine book at
our library.

275. Abd al-Ghani al-Mansuri, maphrian of he East
(d. 1575)

144. MS at al-Tahira Church in Mosul, Cambridge
MS 2887 and MS at our library.

276. The Patriarch Nimat Allah (1587)

145. Our History of the Patriarchs, still in manuscript
form.

146. Cambridge MS 3-72 DD and MS at our library.

147. MSS at Diyarbakr and at our library.

148. MS at Constantinople, Berlin Sachau 81 and MS
at our library.

149. Birmingham MS 282 which is an old copy, and
MS at our library.

150. In 1592 died Bishop Timothy of the family of
Nur al-Din, deputy of the patriarch who wrote the
biography of his brother Patriarch Dawud Shah. Cam-
bridge MS 82-3.

277. Wanes (Iyawannis) Wanki, metropolitan of
Cappadocia and Edessa (1624)

151. Our History of the Patriarchs, still in manuscript
form.

152 MSS atjerusalem, Mosul, Aleppo, Boston 4904.
At the Edessene library, we found two Gospels of larger
size which he completed in two months’ time in 1592.

153. MS at the Edessene library containing a Gospel
which he completed in 1588.

154. Jerusalem MS 169. Of those who have acquired
a knowledge of Syriac literature and calligraphy at this
time are the Metropolitan Musa al-Sawari ( 1 587) , Patri-
arch Pilate al- Mansuri (d. 1597), the two Maphrians
Basilius Isaiah of Inhil (d. 1635) and Basilius Bahnam
III the Bati (d. 1655), and the Priest Abd al-Nur son of
the Deacon Istephan Dairaly (1624).

278. The Deacon Sarkis ibn Ghurayr (D. 1669)

155. Paris MS 211, dated 1661.

156. Zafaran MS, dated 1679.

157. MS at our library transcribed from the copies at
Aleppo and Arbo. [Turning against Orthodoxy, the
author means the renunciation of the belief of the
Syrian Orthodox Church in the One Incarnate Nature

of Christ, and also leaving this church to join a church
which adheres to the Chalcedonian doctrine], (ed.)

158. MS at our library dated 1882.

279. The Bishop Hidayat Allah of Khudayda (1693(

159. At our library.

280. Ishaq (Isaac) patriarch of Antioch (d. 1742)

160. We wrote his biography in al-Majalla al-
Batriyarhiyya 5: 250

161. MSS at Midyat, Mosul and Birmingham 238,
dated 1772. There is a very short book of etymology by
Cyril Rizq, son of the Chorepiscopus Matta (Matthew),
bishop of Mosul (d. 1772). We found three copies of this
etymology in Mosul and in Paris MS 300 as well as in
Berlin.

281. The Priest Yuhanna (John) of Basibrina (d.
1729)

1 62. MS at Meddo, and Jerusalem MSS 158 and 162,
and MS at Mar Awgayn Monastery.

163. MSS at our library and at Meddo

282. Maphrian Shimun (Simon) (d. 1740)

164. We wrote his biography in al-Majalla al-
Batriayrkiyya, 6: 23-30.

165. MSS at the village of Tamars and at our library.

166. He finished this book in 1727 or 1729 in Syriac,
but we could not find a copy of it.

167. It is said that he wrote this book in Syriac and
then translated it into Arabic in 1 723. It is also reported
that he wrote the original in Arabic

168. MS at the village of Karboran (in Tur Abdin)
dated 1 733 and MSS at the village Bati and at our library.

169. MS at Meddo and Birmingham MS 26.

170. MS at Meddo, Birmingham MSS 26 and 404,
Cambridge MS 2026 and MS at the Edessene Library.

1 71 .Jerusalem MSS 1 61 , 1 62 and 163, Zafaran MS 44,
Sharfa MS 8-19 and Berlin MS, pp. 520 and 590 of the
index. He also composed a sughith (Canticle) in Octo-
ber, 1702.

1 72. Nineteen lines at Mar Awgayn Monastery and
MS at our library

173. MS atTamars dated 1819, MSatArbo, MSatour
library, Berlin Sachau MS 1 37, Birmingham MS 496 and
the British Museum MS 4097.

174. MSS at Arbo, Mar Iliyya Monastery and Berlin
MS 259

175. The translation of the book of Theology is to be
found in Paris MS 327, The Chariot of Mysteries in Cam-
bridge MS 202 and Silah al-Din is in Berlin, p. 791 of the
index. Other copies are in the libraries of the East.

283. The Chorepiscopus Abd Yeshuof Qusur (1750)

176. Birmingham MS.

1 77. MS at our library.

233

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

284. The Monk Abd al-Nur of Amid (d. 1755)

178. MS at Midyat

1 79. His translations and transcriptions are found at
the Zafaran library.

285. The Maphrian Shukr Allah of Aleppo (d. 1764)

180. Al-MajaUa al-Batriyarkiyya, 7, 125-133.

181. MSS at the town of Aqi in Iraq, Qalat al-Imra’a
and at our library.

286. The Chorepiscopus Yaqub (Jacob) of Qutrubul

(d.

182. A copy of it is at Birmingham MS 113, dated
1795.

183. Berlin MS 93, Jerusalem MSS 225 and 226, MS
at our library and at the Sayyida Monastery MSS 298, 299
and 300.

184. MS at our library.

185. Ibid.

287. Metropolitan Yaqub Mirijan (d. 1804)

186. Most of these odes are in the Jerusalem MS 161.
The others are at Meddo and Arbo. One ode is in the
Paris MS 377.

288. Bishop Yuhanna al-Bustani of Manimim (d.
1825)

187. MS at Badabba.

188. MS at Mar Malke Monastery.

189. MSS at Qartamin Monastery, Azekh, Kafra and
at our library.

190. MS at Mar Malke Monastery.

191. MS at Kafra.

289. Bishop Gurgis of Azekh (d.1847)

192. MSS at Mar Awgayn and at our library.

290. Metropolitan Zaytun of Inhil (d. 1855)

193. Berlin Sachau MS 192.

194. Paris MS 377.

291. The Chorepiscopus Matta (Matthew) Konat (d.
1927)

292. Deacon Naum Faiq (d. 1930)

195. See Murad Chiqqi, Naum Faiq (1936), 300-304.

293. The Priest Yaqub (Jacob) Saka (d. 1931)

196. MS at our library and MS at Bartulli.

EPILOGUE

Part I

1. We mentioned above page 22 that Renaudot
published the text as well as the translation of these
liturgies. But the truth is that he published both the

texts and their translation.

2. J. B. Chabot, La Litterature Syriaque (Paris, 1934),

10 .

Part II

1 . William Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature
(London, 1894), 1-2

2. The Chronicle of the Edessenel: 179, al-Masalik wa al-
Mamalik by Ibn Khurradadhbih, 161, Ibn Hawqal, 154,
and Ahsan al-Taqasim by Abu Abd Allah al- Muqaddasi
al-Bishari, 141.

3. Mujam at-Buldan, by Yaqut, 4: 141.

4. The Chronicle of theEdessene 2: 314-15

5. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, 479.

6 See the letter of Cyril III in a reply to Ignatius III at
the library of the Coptic Patriarchate and at our library.

7 Chabot, p. 159.

8. See above 52-54.

9. Pierre Batiffal, La Litterature Grecque (Paris, 1901),
205 and 207, Tixeront, Compendium of the Patrologia
(1920), 245-247 and Bardy, Litterature Grecque (1928),
103.

10. See above 64.

11. See above 135-136 and and 142-145.

12. J. B. Chabot, La Litterature Syriaque (Paris, 1934),
133.

13. See above 152-153.

14. Chabot, 32.

15. See above 9.

16. Chabot, 85.

17. Ibid., 160.

18. Such as placing the Zuqnin Monastery in Tur
Abdin and Fsilta Monastery in Mount Izla. Also his claim
that the village of Harqal is identical with the city
Heraclea, that Daniel of Salh is from the village Salh and
that the compendium of his commentary is written in
the tenth century, that the metrical story of Basus was
composed in the twelfth century, that the date of the
death of Bar Shumanna is 1 1 72, that the date of the
Maphrianate of Bar Madani is 1348 and that the history
of Ignatius of Melitene ends with 1118. See Chabot,
Ibid., pp. 21, 68, 89, 122, 126, 130. The correct informa-
tion is that Zuqnin is in Amid, Fsilta is near to Talla,
Harqal or Heraclea is a village in Palestine, Daniel of
Salh is called after Salhiyya, and that the compendium
of his history was made in the fifteenth century, that the
metrical story of Basus was composed in the fifteenth
century, that Bar Shumanna died in 1169, Bar Madani
was consecrated a maphrian in 1 231 and that the history
of Ignatius of Melitene ends in 1095.

19. See his historical tract on the Qartamin Monas-
tery, 1915, 5.

20. Henri Pognon, Inscriptions Semitique de la Syrie
(1907), 47, footnote 1.

21. Ibid.

22. The Chronicle of the Edessene 2: 323.

23. Pognon, Ibid., 39.

234

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

24. Ibid., 188, 189 and 134.

25. Ibid., 50.

26. Pognon also held as truthful a false episode about
the Patriarch Ismail (d. 1366), which he received orally
from ordinary ignorant people regarding the conver-
sion of the Muhalamiyya clans to Islam, an event which
does not extend beyond the third decade of the seven-
teenth century, that is 250 years after the time of Ismail.
See Pagnon, 63, footnote 1. 27.

27. J. Labourt, 148, 149, 153, 191,219.28. [the author
gives no quotation of Duval.]

28. See Wright, 76. [This editor has carefully checked
p. 76 of William Wright’s book, but could not find any
information corresponding towhatBarsoum has stated
in the text] 29. See his Liber Thesaurus (Rome, 1875) .
Qirdahi was a grammarian and philologist, not an
historian or a critic.

30. Anton Baumstark, Geschichte der Syrischen Litera-
ture (Bonn, 1922), 294. See also above 140.

31. See The Book of Rhetorics by Antonius of Takrit,
treatise 1 , Chapter 26.

32. See the Index of the Birmingham library, column
917.

33. Ibid., columns 670 and 672.

34. like F. Nau’s mistranslation of qatatas ” commit-
ted adultery,” [meaning a woman who committed adul-
tery[. See Revue de TOrient Chretien 16:3 (191 1) 293-294.

35. See Kugener’s introduction to the seventy-sev-
enth homily of Severus of Antioch, which he translated
into French and published in the Patrologia Orientalis
(1921) 767; Labour, andj. Pargoire, L’Eglise Byzantine
(Paris, 1905), 27, 28 and 29 and Jenine.

Section Five: Monasteries

1. Our discussion of monasteries, which is derived
from different manuscripts and commentaries, though
brief, contains a summary of information which can be
easily understood, the number of bishops we have
mentioned includes only those who have come to our
knowledge. No doubt, the correct number is more than
those we have enumerated, for many of these names
have been lost, and history has forgotten the association
of many bishops with their monasteries. All of this
material has not been compiled in a book, as any expert
in Syriac history knows (see Chapter III) . Many of these
monasteries have been ravaged by time, and little trace
of them is left; however, they are the truest evidence of
the glory and qualities and high state of this Syrian
nation and its excellence in bygone ages. We have been
able to count 83 monasteries.

2. Abbeloos and Lamy, in their commentary on Bar
Hebraeus’ Ecclesiastical History I, 275, state that this
monastery was established by Eusebona, or Habib
(Abibione) , and that it gained fame since the time of
Simon the Stylite. They also say that Talada is the same
as modem Hasya, in the wilderness between Hims and

Damascus. This is incorrect, the time of Simon the
Stylite does not extend beyond 405 A.D., and Talada lies
at the foot of a big mountain east of Antioch and west of
Aleppo; it is still known by this name today, and is not
the village of Hasya, on the highway between Hims and
Damascus. (See the detailed biography of Eusebius by
Theodoret of Cyrus, in the History of Monks, in Migne,
[Bibliotheca Latina], 4).

3. [Presumably Barsoum intends here that John of
Ephesus cited 5 19 as the date of some noteworthy event,
since John wrote his history during the last twenty years
of his life], (ed.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Michael the Great, Chronicle, 2 vols., Syriac.

2. Bar Hebraeus, Chronography, in Syriac.

3. Bar Hebraeus, EcclesiasticalHistory,2\ols., in Syriac.

4. History of the Anonymous Edessene, 2 vols., Syriac.

5. Appendices to Bar Hebraeus’, Chronography and
Ecclesiastical History, in Syriac.

6. Rev. Aphram Barsoum, Nuzhat al-Adhhan ft Tarikh
Dayr al-Zafaran, in Arabic (Mardin, 1917).

7. J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, I, II.

8. William Wright, Syriac Literature, 1894.

9. Rubens Duval, La Litterature Syriaque ( Paris, 1907).

10. J. B. Chabot, La Litterature Syriaque (Paris, 1934).

1 1 . Anton Baumstark, Geschichte der syrischen Literatur
(Bonn, 1922).

12. Rev. Ishaq Armala, Raghbat al-Ahdath, 2 vols., the
second in Syriac (1908).

13. M. L’abbe Martin, Histoire de la Ponctuation ou de
la Massore chez les Syriens (Paris, 1875).

14. Rubens Duval, Histoire d’Edesse (Paris, 1892).

15. Hayes, L’Ecole d’Edesse (1934).

16. A metrical biography of Bar Hebraeus and his
brother, by Gabriel of Bartulli, bishop of thejazira, in
Syriac.

1 7. The Book of Life in the Monastery of Qartamin, in
Syriac.

1 8. The Booh of Life in the church of Zaz.

19. Catalogue of the manuscripts of Zafaran Monas-
tery, by the author.

20. Catalogue of the manuscripts of St. Mark’s Mon-
astery in Jerusalem, and four Syriac copies of this cata-
logue in the Monastery of the Armenians, by the author.

21. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the churches
and monasteries of Tur Abdin and Bazabdi, by the
author.

22. Catalogue of the man uscripts of the Syrian Church
of Diyarbakr, by the author.

23. Catalogue of our private Patriarchate Library in
Hims, by the author.

24. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the Library of
the Diocese of Mosul and its Syrian churches, by the
author.

25. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the Monastery of

235

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Mar Malta and of the churches under itsjurisdiction, by
the author.

26. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the churches of
Kharput, Seert, Karkar, Swayrik, and Hisn Mansur, by
the author.

27. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the churches of
Mardin and its villages, by the author.

28. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the church of
Edessa, which was transferred to Aleppo in 1 924, by the
author.

29. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the churches of
Aleppo, Hims and its villages, and Harran, Damascus
and Beirut, by the author.

30. Catalogue of the manuscripts of the two churches
in Egypt and Constantinople, by the author.

31. William Wright, Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts
in the British Museum, 3 vols. ( 1870) .

32. Wright and Cook, Catalogue of the Syriac Manu-
scripts at Cambridge, 2 vols.

33. Payn e-Smith, Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts in
the Bodleian Library (Oxford, 1864).

34. H. Zotenberg, Catalogues des manuscrits syriaques de
la Biblzotheque Nationale (Paris, 1874).

35. Stephen Evodius Assemani, Bibliothecae apostolicae
Vaticanae Codicum manuscriptorum catalogus in Ires partes
distributus.

36. E. Sachau, Konigliche Bibliothek Berlin, Kurzes
Verzeichnis der Sachauschen Sammlung syrischer
Handschriften (Berlin, 1885).

37. Stephen Evodius Assemani, Bibliothecae mediceae
Laurentianae et palatinae codicum manuscriptorum
orientalium catalogues.

38. Mingana, Catalogue of Syriac Manuscripts in the
library of Woodbrooke, Birmingham, England.

39. Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts in the
Houghton Library of Harvard University, by the author.

40. Rev. Ishaq Armala, Catalogue of the Syriac Manu-
scripts in the Library of Dayr al- Sharfa.

41 . Addai Scher, Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts
in Seert, Amid, the libraries of the Chaldean Church in
Mosul, Mardin, and the Monastery of al-Sayyida.

42. Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts of Mount
Sinai.

43. Rosen and Forschall, Catalogues codicum
manuscriptorum qui in Museo Britannico asservantur ( Lon-
don, 1838).

44. The biographies of Philoxenus of Mabug, John
Bar Aphtonya, Anton of Takrit, Jacob of Bartulli, and
Joseph the Iberian, and two treatises about the monas-
teries of Qinnesrin and Qanqart, by the author. Also, a
short tract on the history of the Syrian nation in Iraq,
published in Arabic by the author in al-Hikma and al-
Majalla al-Batriyarkiyya, in Jerusalem.

45. Lives of the Saints and Church Fathers: St.
Ephraim, Marutha of Miyafarqin, Rabula, Simon the
Stylite, Jacob of Edessa, Philoxenus of Mabug, Mara of
Amid, Severus of Antioch (there are two lives of Severus,
one published, the other still in manuscript form) John
of Talla (both his life stories have been published) John
Bar Aphtonya, Simon of Beth Arsham, Ahudemeh,
Jacob Baradaeus (both his life stories are published),
Marutha ofTakrit, Simon Zaytuni, Moses bar Kifa John,
Metropolitan of Mardin, John XIV ibn Shay Allah, and
Masud II of Zaz, in Syriac.

236

Index

Aaron of Saruj 56, 59

Aba 25, 80

Abai the martyr 57

Abbeloos, Joannes Baptista 156

Abbot Daniel 4

Abbot Paul 4

Abd Allah of Bartulli, the deacon 6, 28, 39, biography
162

Abd Allah II, Patriarch 48, 55
Abd al-Masih (Ashir) of Sinjar 55, 57
Abd al-Nur of Amid, the monk-priest 135, biography
169

Abd al-Nur of Arbo 7, 1 70
Abd Yeshu the martyr 57

Abda, bishop of Hormizd Ardashir the martyr 57

Abda, bishop of Kharshana 1 39

Abda, Mar 61

Abdal Agha, the Kurd 169

Abdun,John VIII, Bar, Patriarch of Antioch 53,58, 135,
139

Abgar the Black, king of Edessa 16, 60
Abhai, bishop of Nicaea 59
Abhai, the martyr 24, 56

Abhari, Athir al-Din Mufaddal ibn Umar al- (d. 1262),
63, 155

Abraham of Amid, biography 103

Abraham bar Kili 101

Abraham the Hebrew Patriarch 61

Absmayya 25, pupl of St. Ephraim, biography 81

Abu Ali, chief physician 64

Abu Ali, the deacon 54

Abu Bishr the Syrian 64

Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus al-Mantiqi (logician) 134,
194, fL 4

Abu al-Faraj the monk Ibn Abi Said of Amid, 27, 28, 54
Abu al-Faraj of Bartulli 151
Abu al-Faraj Saba, of Basibrina, 6
Abu al- Faraj, the priest 64
Abu Ghalib, bishop ofjihan, biography 145
Abu Hafar (Afar) , military governor of Hiratal-Numan
90

Abu al-Hasan, the deacon 42
Abu al-Izz ibn Daqiq of Mosul 65

AbuJafarAhmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khulayd al-Ghafiqi
al-Andalusi 157

Abujafar al-Mansur, Abbasid caliph 122
Abu al-Karam Said ibn Tuma of Baghdad 64

Abu al-Khayr Sahl ibn Said Al Tuma 65
Abu Nasr of Bartulli, 9, 11, 25, 26, 76, 131, biography
159-160; 165
Abu Nasr, Nicophor 50
Abu Rawh al-Sabi 1 34
Abu Sad, chief physician 64
Abu Sad, the deacon, of Edessa 64, 147
Abu Salim ibn Karaba of Melitene 65
Abu al-Yusr, deacon 64, 1 47

Abu al-Wafa, metropolitan of Hisn Kifa, 25, 26, biogra-
phy 162

Abyssinian, Mar Musa the 24, 60
Acacius , metropolitan of Aleppo 59
Acacius, metropolitan of Melitene 70
Acacius, the priest 72

Acepsimas (Aqbshma), bishop of Hanitha 57
Achille, Rufmus of 60

Addai, of Basibrina the priest 37, 52, 76, biography 166,

Addai (Thadeus) the Apostle 24

Ador-Baruh 57

Aegeates, John , 72, 73

Aesop (Luqman the Sage) 64

Agape tus, Pope 91-92, 99

Agapius, Malkite bishop of Mabug, Kitab al-Unwan, 83
Agripas the martyr 24, 57
Ahi, catholicos of Ctesiphon 57, biography 81
Ahiqar, The Book of 1

Ahmoy, Ashuma, Hasmay, martyrs of the mountain of
57

Aho, 56, 59

Ahudemeh, maphrian of Takrit 7, 22, 24, 53, 58, his
compositions 63, biography 99-100, 107
Ahwaz, Joseph of 50

al-Alfaz al-Syryaniyya fi al-Maajim al-Arabiyya, viii of he
translator’s Introduction
Alexander of Alexandria 68

Alexius Comnenus, (1180-1183) Byzantine Emperor
146

Alexius the Roman 60

al-Lulu al-Manthur ft Tarikh al-Ulum wa al-Adab al-
Syriyaniyya, viii, ix, x, xi of the translator’s
Introduction; and xiii of the author’s Preface.
al-Mashriq, a periodical founded by Bishop Bulus
Bahnam in Mosul, vii of the translator’s Introduc-
tion

Al Tuma of Basibrina 54

Ambrose, Greek philosopher, An Explanation of the Excel-
lence of Christianity over Paganism 47, 67
American Foundation for Syriac Studies, xi of the
translator’s Introduction
Amphilocus, bishop of Konya (Iconium) 58, 69
Ammonius (d. 384), Egyptian solitary 49
Amraya the martyr bishop of Beth Laphet 57
Amraya, Simon bar 1 1
Anagnostes, Theodore the 73
Anastasius (Anastas) Byzantine Emperor 51, 73, 86
Anatolius, author of Veterinary Medicine 65

237

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Anba Karas, the ascetic 24
Anba Paul, biography 105
Anba Yuhanna, disciple of Marun 5
Andrew, bishop of Crete (d.700.), 23
Andrew ofjerusalem, his homily on the decease of the
Virgin 71, biography 107
Andrew, Nestorian bishop of Samosata 82
Andrew the martyr 60
Andronicus the martyr 58, 60
Anjur, Dionysius 155
Anna the martyr 57

Anonymous writer of the Monastery of Qinnesrin 99
Anonymous Historian, The 128

Antaki, Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl al-, known as al-Rumi (d.

1052) 19, Book of the Egyptian Monks 50
Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople 92, 93, 96, 99
Anton (Antonius Rhetor) ofTakritl,8,9, 11, 14, 30,44,
79, 80, 83, biography and writings 127, 150
Antonine, Bishop 47
Antonius, (d. 356) Egyptian solitary 49
Antonius Pious, Roman Emperor 47
Antony the Great whose story is written by Athanasius of
Alexandria 59

Aphrahat, x of the translator’s Introduction; 12, Homi-
lies, 44, 48, biography 77-78
Aphram Barsoum (the author) 18, 22, 48, 52, 58, 99,
125, 127, 152, 155, 158, 167, 169, 170, 173
Aphtonya Yuhanna (John) bar 25, 31 , 55, 58, 59, 75, 86,
biography 96-97
Apocalyptic, John the 32
Apocryphal Writings 15
Apocalypse of Baruch 15
Arbil, the priest Jamal al-Din of 65
Arbi, metropolitan of Samosata 67, biography 128-129
Arbo, Abd al-Nur of 7, 1 70

Arbo, Bahnam of, metropolitan ofjerusalem 6, 30
Argon the Mongolian Khan 54, 162
Aristides, the Athenian philosopher 47, 67
Aristotle, xi of the translator’s Introduction; his Poetics
8, AnalyticaPriora 62, Negation and Affirmation, Causes
of he Universe, , Genus, Species and Individuality, Cat-
egories, Being of the World, On the Soul, Analytica Priora,
Organon 63, 65, 92, 108, 112, 154
Armala, Rev. Ishaq 150, 161
Amun 50

Arqa (Anqa), Paul 5, biography 76
Arzenjan, Aaron of 54
Asclepius, Malkite bishop 84
Aslam, metropolitan of Amid, 7
Assal, al-Mutaman ibn Isaac Ibn al- 125
Assal, al-Shaykh Asad Abu al-Faraj Ibn al- 19
Assemani, Guissepi (Yusuf, Joseph), vii, x of the
translator’s Introduction, 33, 5 1 , 52, 53, 82, 86, 107,
108, 121, 123, 128, 130, 133, 134, 147, 149, 1 73, 176,
185

Assemani, Stephen Awwad (Evodius) 79

Asuna the disciple of St. Ephraim 11, 30, 41, 75,

biography 80
Asya, Mar 24, 59
Asylus, bishop of Ras Ayn 91

Athanasius St. of Alexandria 32, 47, 58, 59, 67, 68, 91,
105, 127, 132, 144,153, 157

Athanasius II, Baladi (Balad) 21, 44, 63, 66, 67, 72, 75
105, biography 109-110, his writings 110
Athanasius, bishop of Hisn Patrice 135
Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa 64, 148
Athanasius I, Gammala , Patriarch of Antioch 1 2, 41 , 59,
105, biography 105-106; 107
Athanasius Hakim 129

Athanasius VI, of the Kamra family. Patriarch, 4, biog-
raphy 140

Athanasius IV, patriarch fAntioch known asal-Salhi, 19,
135, biography 136

Athanasius VIII, patriarch of Antioch 148
Athanos, abbot of Kukhta Monastery, 118
Athanos of Amid, 64

Athanos (Atanos) the priest 46, biography 145

Atharb, John of 7, 44, 51, 80, 1 14, 129, 147

Athir, Izz al-Din Ibn al- 1 76

Aucher, the Mechitarist 13

Awad, Ibrahim 38, 54

Awad, Saliba 38

Awgayn (Eugene) Mar 56, 59

Ayn Ward, Simon metropolitan of 6, 29, 42

Azad the martyr 57

al-Zahra and Dhakiyya fi al-Batriyarkiyya al-Suryaniyya al-
Antakiyya, by Ishaq Armala viii of
al-Zahra al-Qudsiyya ft al-Talim al-Masihi viii of he
translator’s Introduction
Azazel of Samosata 56, 1 26, 1 60
Aziz of Faf 25

Aziz, maphrian of Seert, 65

Aziz of Midyat, 53, 54, biography 166-167

Baashmin, the catholicos bar 57
Babai, 50

Babai (Babuy) the catholicos 57, 128
Babuy, sister of Sharbil the martyrs 55
Babula (Babila), patriarch of Antioch 58
Bacchus, Jean 154
Bacchus, Ali ibn 64
Bacchus, Ibrahim ibn 65
Bacchus, Isa ibn Ali ibn 64,65

Bacchus known asal-Tawwaf (the Wanderer) of Beth
Khudayda 6, 54
Bacchus, Mar 24

Bacchumius, (d.346) Egyptian solitary 49
Badmea (Badma) the abbot 57
Bahlul, al-Hasan bar 8, 9, 13, 65, 117, 129, 161, 169
Bahnam Bati, Maphraian 7

Bahnam, Bulus. Rev. later Bishop (d. 1969), vii, viii of
the translator’s Introduction
Bahnam Habbo Kanni of Bartulli, 65
Bahnam, Mar, and his sister Sarah 24, 55, 56, 56

238

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Bakhti, Badr Khan Beg 170
Bakhti, Izz al-Din Shir 55
Bakhti, Mansur Beg 55

Balai, metropolitan of Balsh 18, 31, 75, 79, biography
82-83

Bar Andrew, Yuhanna (John) (d. 1156) metropolitan of
Mabug 11, 30, 41,44,75
Bar Batriq, Gabriel 4
Barbara the martyr 24, 58

Bar Daysan, x of the translator’s Introduction; 10, Laws
of the Countries 62, 65, 66, 75, biography 76-77; 79
Bardy, Gustave 73, 96, 1 76

Bar Hadhbshabba, deacon of Arbil 57, biography 129
Bar Hebraeus, Mar Gregorius Abu al-Faraj ofMelitene,
maphrian of the East Ecclesiastical History viii, x of
the translator’s Introduction; Semhe (The Book of
Lights) 6, 8, 9, 10 , 1 1, 12, Ausar Roze 1 4, 17, 19, 20-
22, Ethikon 23, 27, 29, 39, Hudoyo, Mnorath Qudshe,
Zalge, 44, 48, Ethikon 50, The Book of the Dove 50,
Chronography, Tarikh Mukhlasar al-Duwal, Ecclesiasti-
cal History 52, 53, Lamp of the Sanctuaries, The Book of
Rays, 62, his commentary on Aristotle’s Dialectics,
his philosophical writings 63, 64, 65, The Book of
Rays, TheLampofthSanctuaries, The Ascent of the Mind
66, 67, 75, 84, 90, 94, 103, 105,112, 1 17, 123, 124,
125, 126, 128, 131, 133, 136, 138, 140, 143, 149, 151,
biography and writings 152-158; 160, 163, 173, 174,
176

Barlaha the ascetic, biography 90-91
Barnes, W. E. 15
Baro of Ras Ayn 61

Bar Qarman, George, metropolitan of Mardin (1504) 6
Barsmayya, bishop of Edessa 55
Barsoum, maphrian of the East (d. 1454) 31
Barsoum, Mar (St.) 56, 59

Barsoum al-Safi, brother of Bar Hebraeus 9, 53, 54, 75,
biography 160; 162
Barsouma of Nisibin 97, 107, 128
Basil, (Basilius) of Caesarea St. 14, 32, 45, 47, 105, 110
Basil Simon, Patriarch 36
Basilius of Basibrina, biography 151
Basilius, bishop of Samosata, biography 127
Basilius Yalda of Khudayda 168
Basilius Yusuf, metropolitan of Khabur 54
Basus, Mar (St.) 55
Batriq, Elisha bar 4
BatifFol, Pierre 73
Bauer, G. L. 156

Baumstark, Anton, Geschichte der syyrischen Literatur, vii,
viii of the translator’s Introduction; xii, xiii of the
author’s Preface, 1 7, 56, 63, 64, 68, 85, 104, 106,
110, 115, 116, 121, 140, 149, 159, 163, 174, 175, 176
Baysan (Scythopolis), John of 46, 73
Bedjan, Rev. Paul 49, 50, 81, 82, 84, 87, 156, 163
Behnsh, Ottomar 166

Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa, 3, 18, 44, biography
126-127

Benjamin, the story of 59
Berthelot, P. E. M, 66
Beth Laphet, Sabina, bishop of 57
Beth Sahdi the martyr 58
Bevan, Anthony Ashley 15
Bickell, Gustav 79, 81, 173

Bishwai, whose story was written byjohn the Less 59, 60
Bolida, Bishop 57

Book of the Holy Hierotheos, translated into English by F. S.
Marsh, x of the translator’s Introduction, 71, 85,
131

Book of Jubilees 15

Book of Ladders, The 49, 50

Book of Life, The 32, 48, 53

Book of the Simples by al-Ghafiqi 64

Book of the Six Days by Jacob of Edessa 4, 1 10

Book of Steps, The 49

Bosi the martyr 57

Boyaji, Gabriel 33

Braun, Oskar. 132

Brikh Yeshu the martyr 57

Brooks, E. W. Chronica Minora 51; 93, 94, 99, 102, 113,
128, 176

Bruns, P. J. 97, 166
Budge, Ernest A. Wallis, 15, 89, 156
Bukhturi, Abd Allah al-, who in 751 destroyed the Syrian
monasteries of Quba and Sinunl90
Bulus (Paul) Bishop, patriarchal representative in
Constantinople 55
Bulus, deacon Matta 7
Burhan the physician 64
Burkitt, F. C. 12

Busra, Antipater, metropolitan of 71
Busra, Titus bishop of 67, 68
Bustani, Butrus al-. 10

Bustani, Yuhanna (John) al-, ofManinim 11, 76, biograpy
170

Butahi, (Yuhanna) John 21

Chalabi, Hidayat Allah 157
Callinicus, Paul of, see Raqqa
Callinicus, Peter of , see Raqqa
Camu, John, the story of 60
Casesarea, Aledius of 58
Casesarea, Basil of 58, 65
Caesarea, Glasius of 68

Causa Causarum, (The Cause of all Causes) by an anony-
mous author 62, 75
Cave of Treasures 15
Celestine 65
Ceriani, A. M. 15

Chabot. J. B. vii, viii, xi of the translator’s Introduction;
xii of the author’s Preface; 5, 52, 70, 77, 85, 86, 98,
108, 112, 121, 122, 125, 132, 135, 136, 144, 145, 147,
150, 158, 163, 165, 173, 174, 1 75
Chartarius, deacon 72
Cheikho, Rev. Louis 158

239

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Christodolus, Coptic patriarch 137
Christopher, the barbarian martyr in Lycia 58
Christian East The, by Lucian 29
Chronica Minora 51
Chronicle of Qartamin, The 125

Chrysostom, St. John 4, 15, 17, 31, 32, 49, 56, 58, 67, his
writings 69-71, 82, 105, 107
Ciasca, Augustine 13
Cilicia, Basil (Basilius) of 73

Claudia, Dionysius Saliba, bishop ofxi of the translator’s
Introduction
Cladius the martyr 58

Clement (Clemis) of Rome 27, 46, 58, 67, 83
Climacus, Iyawannis (d. 649), The Book of Steps or the
Ladders 50
Coberlaha 57

Codrington, Humphrey 22

Constantine, bishop of Edessa, biography and writings
118-119

Constantine X, Ducas, Emperor 138
Constantine the Great 51, 61
Constantinople, Photius of 65, 73
Constantinople, Timocles, priest of 72, 73
Constitutions Apostolorum 15
Conversation of Moses unth God on Mount Sinai 15
Cosmas and Demyan the martyrs 24, 58
Cosmas the priest 59, biography 83
Cureton, William 12, 51, 67, 102
Cyprian 67

Cyprus, Epiphanius, metropolitan of 29, 68
Cyprus, Isaac, metropoloitan of 82
Cyriacus and his mother Jullita 24, 58
Cyriacus, metropolitan of Amid, biography 105
Cyriacus metropolitan of Talla, 26, biography 100
Cyriacus, metropolitan of Tur Abdin, biography 121
Cyriacus, Patriarch of Antioch 14, 28, 44, 48, 75, 85,
biography 124-125
Cyrianus 60

Cyril of Alexandria 59, 82, his Glaphyra, 99

Cyril Joseph 40

Cyril of Jerusalem, 17, 31

Cyril Simon al-Alini, bishop of Hah, 21, 37, 75, biogra-
phy 161

Cyrillona, disciple of St. Ephraim 1 1 , 75, biography 81
Cyrissona. See Eustathius of Dara
Cyrus of Batnan, biography 101

Cyrus (Cyrrhus) Theodoretof 15, Eclesiastical History 51 ,
56, 58, 72

Dad Yeshu 57

Dada of Amid, 1 1 , biography 81
Dadu 57

Dalyatha, Yuhanna 50, 165
Damascus, Cosmas of 31
Damascus, John of 23, 31
Damasus, the deacon Yuhanna of 65
Daniel the ascetic 24

Daniel of Beth Batin 13, 18, 44, biography, 130

Daniel of Mardin, 54, 76, biography and writings 162

Daniel bar Mary, Ecclesiastical History 81

Daniel bar Moses, biography 119

Daniel bar Musa (Moses) of Tur Abdin 51

Daniel of Salh 14, 75, biography 98; 163

Daniel, story of 59, 60

Dara, John (Iyawannis) of 14, 27, 44, 75, 89, 119, 120,
128, biography, 129-1 30; 133, 134
David of Amid 61

David bar Paul of Beth Rabban, biography and writings
123-124

David (Dawud) , bishop Clemis Yusuf vii of the translator’s
Introduction; 19

David, bishop of Marash, biography 116
David of Hims 21, 25, 31, 54, 76, 98, biography and
writings 165-166

David, nephew of Simon Zaytuni, 3

Dawud Shah, Patriarch 48, 54

Deacon Saba, biography 116-117

Denha, Athanasius, metropolitan of Edessa 64

Denha of Beth Khudayda (Qaraqosh) 33, 43

Denha, Bishop 55

Denha the deacon 42

Denha I, maphrian of the East (d.659), biography 107
Denha III, of Harran, Maphrian 23, 48, 59
Denha the Philosopher (Abu Zachariah), 63, biogra-
phy 133-134; 135

Denha, the priest-philosopher, biography 129

Demete, Mar 24

Deodorus the martyr 58

Desire for Patience, The 64

Dhu Nuwas, Jewish King 53, 58

Diatessaron, see Tatian of Adiabene

Diaetetes 72

Didascalia Apostolorum 15, 67, 107, 109, 129
Didymus of Alexandria 68, 91, 107
Diettrich, G. 163

Dionysius Abd al-Hayy of Mardin 7
Dionysius of Alexandria 44, 46, 67
Dionysius the Areopagite, 5,14, liturgy 20, 27, 32, 44, 45,
46,59,71,105,123,127
Dionysius of Corinth 7

Dionysius II, Patriarch of Antioch (d. 909), biography
133

Dionysius Saliba, bishop of Kaludhya, biography 152
Dionysius of Tall Mahre, 48, 5 1 , Chronography 52, 75, 86,
97, 1 01 , 1 1 9, 1 21 , 1 23, 1 26, biography 127-1 28; 1 29,
174

Dioscorides, De Medicamentis Simplicibus 64
Dioscorus Gabriel, bishop of al-Jazira, 21,53
Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria 58
Dioscorus Theodorus bar Basil, metropolitan of Hisn
Ziyad, 6, 37, biography 152
Doctrine of Addai, The 1 6
Doctrina Apostolorum 15
Dodo, Mar 165

240

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Dolabani, Mar PhiloxenusYuhanna, xiof the translator’s
Introduction, 152, 156, 158
Dorotheos the deacon 45
Dunaysari, Ibrahim al- 42

Dunlop, D. M. Professor, xi of the translator’s Introduc-
tion

al-Durar al-Nafisa fi Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Kanisa, viii of the
translator’s Introduction
Duqayq , Abu al-Saadat ibn 35

Duval, Rubens, La Litterature Syriaque, vii, viii, ix of the
translator’s Introduction; xii of the author’s Pref-
ace, 82, 98, 108, 121, 132, 135, 136, 174, 176
Duwayhi, Istephan al-. Maronite Patriarch 108, 151

Ebdocos (Eudocos) of Melitene, biography 140

Ecclesiastical History of Tur Abdin, The 52

Edessa, Abu al-Khayr of 65

Edessa, Benjamin bishop of 75

Edessa, Gabriel of 63, 64

Edessa, Habib of, biography 88

Edessa, Isa of 64

Edessa, Isaac of, also known as Isaac of Antioch, biogra-
phy 83-84 11, 75

Edessa, Isaac the Second of, biography 84-85
Edessa, Jacob of. See Jacob of Edessa
Edessa, Maphrian Saliba of 10, 65
Edessa,, Theodosius metropolitan of 67, 75
Edessa, Theophilus of, biography 77
Edessa n, Anonymous 522

Edessan Bishop, anonymous author oi“The Cause of all
Causes,” biography 134-145
Edessan, John the 49, Chronicle 51
Edessene, Chronicler (The Anonymous), biography
149-150

Egyptian, Macarius the 32, 49
Elaria, daughter of Emperor Zeno 60
Elarianus the priest 72
Elias of Ardi 118

Elias, bishop of Sinjar, biography 120
Elias, Chorepiscopus of Mosul 22
Elias II, Patriarch 55

Elias III, Patriarch, vii, viii of the translator’slntoduction
Elijah (Iliyya, Elias) of Harran, biography 123
Elijah the martyr 57

Elijah I, (d. 723), Patriarch of Antioch, biography 116
Elijah the monk 98
Elisha, Rabban Abu al-Faraj bar 1 7
Ephraim of Amid, Chalcedonian patriarch of Antioch
91,92,99, 101

Ephraim, St, the Syrian, x of the translator’s Introduc-
tion; 2, 8, 10, 1 1, 12, 14, 17, 22, 24, 30, 31, 41, 44, 56,
57, 59, 66, 75, biography 78-80, 82, 115, 122, 130,
132, 137, 141, 143, 144, 148, 153, 154,

Epiphanes, King Antiochus IV 55
Epiphanes, Antiochus IV, 55
Epiphanius of Cyprus 60
Euagrius of Constantinople 156

Euagrius Pontius 49, 88, 144, 154
Euclid, 66, 157

Eugene and Pacilina the martyrs 58
Eugenius the Egyptian 60

Euiliano, John.xi of the translator’s Introduction
Eulogius, the story of 59, 60
Euphemia the martyr 60

Euphrosyne daughter of Paphnotius of Alexandria 60
Eupraxis, 60

Eusebius, bishop of Rome 61

Eusebius of Caesarea, 16, 46, 47, Ecclesiastical History 51,
55,57,67,68,91,112,113,114,123
Eusebius of Edessa, bishop of Hims 68
Eusebius of Pheonicia 60
Eusebius of Samosata 56, 58, biography 81
Eustathius of Dara known as Cyrissona 114, 115, 117
Eustathius, patriarch of Antioch 20, 47, 67
Eustinus 67

Euthalius, Bishop, biography 116
Euthycus 32

Eutochus, the king’s secretary 58
Evagrius, the story of 59

Explanation of the Commandments of Our Lord 48-49
Ezekiel II, metropolitan of Melitene, biography 11, 75,
133

Faf, Aziz of 25

Faiq, Naum 10, 11, biography 171
Fakhr al-DawIa of the Tuma family 9, 151, 152
Fankaye, Yuhanna bar 50
Farabi, Abu Nasr al-61, 134, 173

Fayyumi, al-Shaykh Said ibn Yaqub al-., also known as
Sadiya al-Yahudi 19

Febroina the martyr nun of Nisibin 24, 57
Flavian II, patriarch of Antioch 86, 89, 93
Freimann, A. 110

Fuller, Peter II, patriarch of Antioch 73, 83, 85, 89
FulkofAnjou, Latin king ofjerusalem (1131-1143), 140

Gabriel, abbot 56

Gabriel of Bartulli, x of translator’s Introduction; 9, 11,
25, 33, 75, biography 160
Gabreil of Beth Abi 57
Gabriel of Edessa, 63, 64; biography 149
Gabriel, Greek governor of Melitene 138
Gabriel of Sinjar 64
Galen, 63, 64, 92
Gaius the ascetic 45, 67
Garshun the Stranger, biogrpahy 131
Gazza, John of, bishop Hephaestus in Egypt 58-59
Gemellinus, bishop of Perrhe 51, 82, 99
George of Baysan, a priest of the great church of
Constantinople 46

George, bishop of the Arabs, 9, 1 1 , 1 4, 44, 48, 62, 63, 65,
75, 88, biography and writings 117-118
George I, patriarch of Antioch (d.79 0), biography 122
Ghalib, Bar 11

241

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Gharib of Maninim biography 164
Gharib, Patriarch Ibrahim bar 25, biography 1 62
Gharib, Yusuf (Joseph) al-, metropolitan of Amid 21,
25, 26, 76, biography 162
Ghassani, King al-Harith ibn Jabalah al- 100
Ghurayr, Sarkis bar 11, biography 168
Gibson, Mrs. 16
Godfrey of Bouillon 140
Goodspeed, E. J. 106
Gottheil, R. J. H. 64, 65

Gouryh, Admer, Dr. xi of the translator’s Introduction
Graf, Georg, Geschichte der christlichen Literatur, vii of the
translator’s Introduction
Graham, William Creighton 153, 176
Grasmius, the story of 60
Gregorius bishop of Jerusalem, 21
Gregorius Jacob, maphrian of the East, biography 1 48
Gregorius John, metropolitan of St. Mathew’s Monas-
tery and Azerbayjan 151
Gregory II, Armenian catholicos 1 37
Gregory the ascetic (Persian) 48
Gregory, bishop 64

Gregory Matta, maphrian of the East (1317-1354), 162

Gregory, preacher of the Armenians 58

Gregory, resident of Cyprus 32

Gurgis (George) of Azekh 11, biography 170

Gurgis of Basibrina, biography 1 65

Gurgis, of Bashiqa 55

Gurgis, John, bishop of the Monastery of Qartamin 2 1 ,
54

Gurgis or Jurjis I (George), Patriarch 20, 48
Gurgis, (George) St. 26, 57

Gurtij the Armenian, persecutor of the monks of the
Monastery of Arnish 186
Guriyya, martyr 55

Habib al-Attar 89

Habib Abu Raita of Takrit, biographyl25-126
Habib, deacon martyr 24, 55
Habib martyr 57

Habbo Kanni. See Bahnam Habbo Kanni
Hadabu of Arzun 57
Hadar Sabur the martyr 57
Hadaurun, Barhattar son of 83
Hadbo, Isaiah bar, biography 77
Hadrian, Roman Emperor 47
Haddad, Jacob, metropolitan of Hattack 162
Hafsi the martyr 57

Hagnes (Agnes) the Roman virgin martyr 58

Hah, Abdo of 11, 21

Hah. Ibrahim of 14, 37

Hah, Simon of 34

Halmadura the martyr 57

Halphid the martyr 57

Hamdan, Musa bar 54

Hamadhani, Abd al-Rahman al- (d. 933), al-Alfaz al-
Kitabiyyal2'7

Hananya of Arbil the martyr 57

Hananya al-Gharib. See John XII, patriarch of Antioch
Hananya and his wife Mary from Jericho 60
Hananya, metropolitan of Mardin and Kafrtut59
Hannan Yeshu of Beth Abi 60
Harith, the Arab martyr 58

Harqali, Tuma al- (Thomas of Heraclea) 12, 67, 75, 85,
biography 105
Harran, Den ha of 23
Harran, Ibrahim bishop 58
Harran, Lazarus of 59
Harris, J. Rendel. 15, 47, 77
Hasan of Mosul, 21

Hashimi, Abd al-Malik ibn Salih al- 185

Hasnun of Edessa, biography 149

Hattab, Daniel ibn al- 162

Hayes, E. R. 176

Hazar Dinari 1 49

Hbab, the priest Addai of 40

Hbab.Joiakim of 55

Hbab, Yusuf of 25

Helen, Queen 60, 61

Hemneans 46

Heraclea, Thomas of. See Harqali

Hiba. See Ibas

Hidayat Allah Chalabi 157

Hidayat Allah of Khudayda, bishop (d.,1693), biogra-
phy 168

Hidayat Allah, patriarch 54, 168
Hidli, Patriarch Bahnam al- 9, 1 1, 15, 21, 25, 57, 76, 98,
biography and writings 163-164
Hieronymus (Jerome) St. 32, 50, 83
Himyarite Christian Martyrs of Najran in Yemen 58, 90,
93, 94, 96, 97-99

Hipparchus, martyr of Samosata 56

Hippocrates’s Aphorism 64

Hirrin, Simom, of 6

Hisn Ziyad, Yuhanna the priest of 26

History of Edessa 51

History of the Patriarch of Antioch and the Maphrians of the
East 52

Hoffmann, J. G. E. 47, 1 1 7

Honorius, Caesar 61

Hulago, (1260-1289), 151

Hormizd the martyr, bishop of Shuster 56

Hunayn ibn Ishaq 8, 13, 19, 64, 148, 150, 157

Hurr, ibn Yusuf al-, governor of Mosul 118

Ibas (Hiba), metropolitan of Edessa 62, 83

Iberian, Joseph the 28, 32, 38

Iberian, Peter the, bishop of Mayuma 53, 55, 56, 58

Ibrahim the ascetic of the Lofty Mountain 59

Ibrahim ibn Bacchus 64

Ibrahim of Basibrina 40, 42

Ibrahim, bishop of Hidyab 57

Ibrahim, bishop of Tallbsam 148

Ibrahim, Mar 24

242

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Ibrahim of Mardin, the monk 54, biography 162
Ibrahim the martyr 57
Ibrahim of Nabk 36
Ibrahim II, patriarch 54
Ibrahim al-Sayyad, biography 110
Ibrahim Zanbur of Basibrina 6, 36
Ignatius the Illuminator 47, 58, 67
Ignatius II, maphrian of the East (d. 1164), biography
141-142

Ignatius III, metropolitan of Melitene 52, 67, 75, biog-
raphy 138

Ignatius II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 873) , biography 1 30
Ignatius III, patriarch of Antioch 28
Ignatius Romanus, metropolitan of Jerusalem, biogra-
phy 146

Ignatius Sahdo, metropolitan ofjerusalem 148

Ikhtiyar al-Din Hasan 149

Iliyya, metropolitan of Kesum, biography 142

Iliyya Shiah of Mardin, metropolitan of Bushayriyya 7

Iliyya of Sinjar 5

Iliyya Yeshu 38

Irenaeus 67

Isa ibn Ali, 13

Isa, bishop 55

Isa of Hims 54

Isa al-Jazri, 11, 21

Isaac of Amid pupil ofSt. Ephraim 1 1 , 75, biography 81 ,
83

Isaac Azar, patriarch 7, 54, biography 168-169
Isaac, bishop of Beth Selukh 57
Isaac, catholicos of Ctesiphon (al-Madain) 47, 82
Isaac, the Compiler of the Liturgy, biography 1 30
Isaac the martyr under Emperor Decius 60
Isaac of the Monastery of Gabula 60
Isaac (Ishaq), patriarch of Antioch (1724), 55, biogra-
phy 168-169
Isaac, St. 18, 31, 44

Isaac the Shaved, metropolitan of Cyprus 1 22
Isagoge of Porphery 62, 63, 110
Isaiah of Aleppo 59

Isaiah, bishop of Basibrina, 1 1, 25, 52, 76, biography 163
Isaiah of Gazza whose story was written by Zachariah of
Mitylene 60
Isaiah of Inhil 7
Isaiah, the martyr 24
Isaiah of the Scete 49, 55
Isaurian, Anba Marcus the 47
Ismail, Patriarch 54
Isodor, the story of 60

Istarjian, K. L., Tarikh al-Thaqafa wa al-Adab al-Armani, ix
of the translator’s Introduction
Ith Alalha the martyr 57
Ith Alaha, the monk, biography 108-109
Ith Alalha, the priest 63, 108
Iyawannis I (d.754) , biography 1 20
Iyawannis Mina, metropolitan of Amid 64
Iyawannis Yeshu, metropolitan of Raban 6

Jacob Baradaeus 8, 53, 58, 99, biography 100
Jacob of Bartulli, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monas-
tery (d. 1241) 1,7, Dialogue 8 , 9, 11, 14,23, Treasures,
Plain Truth, 44,63, 66, 75, 107, 140, biography and
writings 150-151; 161
Jacob bishop of Ana, biography 130
Jacob, deacon 83, biography 83
Jacob of Edessa, 3, 4, 7, 11, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20,22, 23, 26,
27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 38, 40, 41, 47, 53, 59 , 61, The
first Cause, the Creating, and the Almighty, which is God,
the Protector of All 62, 63, 65, 67, 72, 75, 80, 84, 107,
108, 109, biography and writings 110-116, 117, 119,
130, 132, 135, 143, 147, 148, 153, 145, 161, 174
Jacob Haddad of Hattakh, 21. See Qinaya, Bar
Jacob of Manimim, 6, 35

Jacob the martyr and his sister Mary the Nun of the
village of Tall Shalila 57

Jacob, metropolitan of Miyafarqin, 28, biography 134;
151

Jacobi, patriarch (d. 1517) 6, 39, 42, 54, biography 167
Jacob II, patriarch of Antioch55

Jacob the Persian martyr who was cut to pieces (al-
Muqatta) 24, 57

Jacob of Qutrubul, 11, 25, 26, 33, 76, biography 170
Jacob of Saruj 4, 8, 9, 1 1 , 1 7, 18, 24, 25, 30, 44, 53, 56, 57,
58, 59, 65, 75, 80, 86 biography 86- 88, The Chariot of
Ezekiel, 87,91, 105, 1 14, 1 15, 132, 139, 143, 148, 153,
154, 174, 185
Jacob the recluse 59
Jacob the Wanderer 60
Jalsh, Daniel of 59, 88
Jamal al-Din, governor of Mosul 142
Janssen, Herman 155
Janurin of Amid, 67, biography 107-108
Jidyab, bishop of Beth Laphet 57
Jihan, Athanasius Abu Ghalib bishop of (d. 1177) 50
Job of Manimim, biography 131
John, abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin 99
John II, archbishop of Alexandria 72
John III, archbishop of Alexandria, 72
John the ascetic 41, 59

John bar Andrew 10, 1 1, 30, 44, biography and writings,
140-141; 175
John bar Cursus 99
John bar Daniel al-Arabi 14
John bar Samuel, biography 119
John bar Simon of Samosata 59
John Barbour 103

John of Basibrina, (d. 1729) 1; biography 169
John of Basibrina, metropolitan of the Monastery of
Qartamin (d. 1043) 6
John bishop of Arbil 57
John, bishop of Hepaestus the Copt 72
John bishop of Hormizd-Ardashir 57
John, bishop of Karkh Mishan 57

243

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

John, chorepiscopus of Hims, 33

John II, Comnenus (1118-1144), Byzantine Emperor
142, 145

John David of Amid, 28, biography 148
John, disciple of Marun 14, 44, 75, biography 136
John of Ephesus (Asia), Ecclesiastical History, Biographies
of Eastern Saints 51, 56, 58, 59, 61, 75, 91, 92, 100,
biography 101-103; 147, 175
John of Melitene 64

John Grammaticus, Malkite bishop of Caesarea 91, 93

John ibn Saru of Bartulli, 65

John Kafani 59

John the Less 32, 56, 59, 60

John, metropolitan of Busra, 20, 75, biography 107
John metropolitan of Jerusalem, 25
John, metropolitan of Mardin, 5, 25, 44, 48, 53, 141,
biography 142; 145, 149

John II, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monastery, biog-
raphy 119-120

John I, metropolitan of Takrit, biography 110
John Naqar, 49, biography 107
John III, patriarch of Antioch 19, 25, 53
John IV, patriarch of Antioch (d. 873), 48, 72, 128,
biography 1 30

John VIII, patriarch of Antioch 53
John XII, patriarch of Antioch also known as Ilananya
al- Gharib, 6, 11, 54, biography 149
John XIV, Patriarch of Antioch 54
John Psaltes, biography 1 03
John, priest ofBasibrina, 55, biography 169
John the recluse 49

John the Roman who built a church in Kafr Sania 58
John Rufus. See Mayuma

John III of the Sedras, patriarch (d. 648) 19, 25, 26, 44,
75, biography 106
John Shuqayr of Sadad, 147
John of Sermin 101

John of Talla 47, 56, 58, 75, 86, biography 92, his
writings 92

John, The Evangelist, story of 58
John of Tiflis, biography 149
Jonah, story of 59

Jonah (Yunan), Periodeutes and bishop ofTall Mawzalt,
63, biography 109
Joscelin II, count of Edessa 142
Joseph of Alexandria, 72
Joseph of Amid, metropolitan of Hims 4
Joseph and his wife Asiyah (Asenath), the story of 61
Joseph of Arnas, 6
Josephus, Flavius 104

Joseph the Iberian, metropolitan of Jerusalem 25, 26,
28, 32, 40

Joseph Khamis of Sinjar 23
Joseph of Melitene, biography 137
Joseph, the monk from al-Natif Monastery 6
Joseph, the monk, a disciple of Bar Hebraeus 50
Joseph the monk, disciple of Simon of Samosata 59

Joseph the priest martyr 57

Joseph the Stylite of Atharib, biography 119

Josephus, Flavius 104

Jovian, Emperor 61

Julian II 44

Julian the Aged 59

Julian the Apostate 61

Julian of Halicarnassus the Phantasiat60, 91, 93, 96, 99,
125, 128
Julian, Mar 24

Julian the Second, biography 103
Julius Caesar 51
Julius, bishop of Rome 59, 153
Jumua, priest Habash 54
Jurjis (George) II, Patriarch 55
Justin I, Byzantine Emperor 73, 96, 97
Justin of Neapolis 13
Justinian, Emperor 96

Kab, al-Harith ibn 97
Kabar, Abu al-Barakat Ibn 125
Kaddana, Ignatius III bar 54
Kafar, Ibrahim of 36
Kafr Abdin, Simon of 59

Kafr Hawwar, metropolitan Joseph (Yusuf) of 6
Kafr Sania, Yuhanna of, the martyr 58
Kafrbil, Daniel of 4
Kalshi, Yusuf al- 161
Kamal al-Din ibn Yunus 149, 150
Kammuna, Izz al-Dawla Sad ibn 160
Karim, Archbishop Mar Cyril Aphrem, xi of the
translator’s Introduction
Karmlays, Butrus of l7l

Karkar.John metropolitan ofjerusalem and Tripoli of
54

Karkar, Timothy of 9, 11, 75
Kashish, bishop of he island of Chios 59
Kasrun the Edessan monk-priest 6
Kaykubadh, Sultan Ala al-Din 149
Kayser,J. C. 135
Kesum, Elijah bishop of 52
Khabura, Basilius, metropolitan of 28
Khalaf 54

Khammar, Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan ibn Siwar al- 63, 64,
75, biography 134

Kharput and Karkar, Bishop Joseph of 38, 54
Khartbart, Simon of 64

Khayrun, Saliba bar 6, 1 1 , 25, 29, 33, 76, biography and
writings, 161-162

Khayrun, Yeshu bar 10, 11, 25, 76, biography and
writings 161

Khudayda, Hidayat Allah of 11
Khudayda, Yuhanna (John) of 11
Khuzai, Abd Allah ibn Tahir al-, governor of Egypt 125,
127

Kilo, Yeshu bar 76, biography 161, 162

Kilab Hadith al-IIikma by Bar Hebraeus, viii of he

244

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

translator’s Introduction

Kitab al-Tuhfa al-Ruhiyya fi al-Salat al-Fardiyya; viii of he
translator’ s Introduction.

Klaybin, Abd al-Azim of 6
Kmosko, Mihaly 49
Konat, Matta 22, biography 170-171
Konya, (Iconium) Theodorus bishop of 58
Koshtazad the martyr 57
Krikor II (Gregory), Armenian catholicos 141
Krikor III, (Kiwark, Gregory) Armenian catholicos 141,
145

Kugener, M. A. 98, 100
Kumi, disciple of Ibas 62

Kundayraybi, Daniel the, chief copyist of Tur Abdin 6

Labourt, Jerome 144, 176
Lagarde, Paul de 16, 47, 65
Lamy, Thomas Josephus 80, 156
Land, J. P. N. 65,99, 102
Langlois, V 147

Laodicea, Constantine bishop of 47

Lausiam, a history of ascetics by Palladius. See Palladius

Lazarus, Mar 35,

Lazarus, monk, biography 137
Lazarus, the martyr 55, 57

Lebanese, patriarch Nuh the 9, 10, 11, 28, 39, 54, 76,
biography 166
Lebon, Joseph 85
Leo I, Emperor 73
Leonsimus the daughter of kings 60
Leontius and his teacher Poblius the martyrs 58
Leontius of Byzantium 103, 104
Lewis, Agnes Smith, 12, 15
Lubernitus the martyr 24
Lucian and marcian the martyrs 58
Lucy the Virgin 60

Macarius of Alexandria (d. 394) 49, 59
Madani, Barsoum al- 15, 76, biography 164
Madani, maphrian Barsoum al-54, 160
Madani, patriarch Yuhanna (John) bar 10, 11, 25, 28,
48, 75, biography and writings 151-152,

Mahri the martyr 57

Mahruma, Abu al-Hasan ibn 156, biography 160
Mahuza, Sahduna bishop of 50
Mai, Cardinal 156
Malke, the ascetic 26

Malkites ix of the translator’s Introduction; xiii of the
author’s Preface.

Mama the martyr 57, 58
Mamaea, Empress 67
Mana, the Catholicos, biography 81
Mana the martyr 57

Maninim, Abraham metropolitan of 133

Manimim, John bishop of 9

Manimim, Maphrian Simon of 76

Manuel I, Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor 146, 147

Manuel II Comnenus (1134-1180), Byzantine Emperor
142, 145

Mansur Abu al-Faraj ibn 23

Mansuri, Basilius Abd al-Ghani al-, maphrian of the East
21, 76, biography 167-168

Maqdisi, Anis al-. Al-Ittijahat al-Adabiyya ft al-Alam al-
Arabi al-Hadith, ix of the translator’s Introduction
Mara, metrioplitan of Amid, biography 91
Marcian, Emperor 73
Marcion the heretic 77, 80, 132
Marcus and Caspar 60
Mari Al Tuma of Baghdad 65
Mari ibn Sulayman, 57, 156
Mari III, metropolitan of Amid, 4
Marius, 128

Maria the Egyptian martyr 58

Maronites, ix of the translator’s Introduction; xiii of
the author’s Preface
Marash, Barsoum of 53
Marash, Michael of 54
Marga, Thomas of 44, 128
Marina 60

Marseilles, Gennadius of. Famous Men 83
Marsh, F. S., x of the translator’s Introduction
Martin, Abbe Paul 47, 68, 86, 113, 134, 140, 146, 150, 157
Martin ianus 60

Maru (Merv), Theodore bishop of 63
Marun, lector of Ayn Zarba 90
Marun, Mar 24
Marut, the martyr 57

Marutha, maphrian of Takrit, 14, 25, 31, 53, 56, 57, 59,
75, 82biography 106-107
Marwan II, al-Ja’da Umyyad caliph 120, 121
Mary the Copt 60

Mashlul, the monk-priest Abd Allah al-. (1621) 7
Masius, Andreas 104, 132, 173
Masruq, Jewish King 53, 58, 90, 97
Mashtini, Samuel al- 59
Master Sabroy 23, biography 109
Master Ram Yeshu and Master Gabreil, biography 109
Masud ofZaz, Patriarch, 166; biography and writings 167
Masudi, Abu al-Hasan al- Muruj al-Dhahab wa Madain al-
Jawhar, 121 , Kitab al-Masail wa al- Ilal fi. al-Madhahib
wa al-Milal 133, Sirr al-Hayat, 134
Matta, bishop of al-Hassasa, biography 1 34
Matta, metropolitan of Aleppo (669), biography, 109
Matta (Matthew) Mar 24, 56, 59
Maurice, Emperor 61
Maximian Heracleus, Emperor 58
Maximus, who held the doctrine of two wills in Christ
110

Mayhar 57

Mayuma.John Rufus the Antiochian, bishop of, biogra-
phy, 85-86, author of Plephoriae 86
Meddo, priest Mirza of 55
Melitene, deacon Aaron ibn Tuma of 65
Melitene, Joseph of 6, 11

245

Histoiy of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Melitene, Michael ibn Baijas of 65
Melitene, Qufer ibn Harun of 65
Melitene, Ezekiel of 75
Meliton, bishop of Sardis 47
Merx, A 150

Methodius the martyr, bishop of Lucia 67
Meyerhof, Max 157
Mezika the martyr 57
MichaofWank (al-Wanki) (1606) 7
Michael Barsoum of Urbish, metropolitan of Karkar
(1590-1630) 7

Michael of Marash, biography 140
Michael II, patriarch, biograpy 1 61
Michael Rabo (the Great), x of the translator’s Intro-
duction; 6, 9, 25, 26, 28, 48, 5 1 , Chroniude 52,53, 54,
56, 75, 84, 97, 103, 109, 1 10, 116, 1 19, 120, 122, 125,
129, 133, 138, 140, 142, 144, 145, biography 146-
147; 151, 153, 174, 186
Midyat, Aziz of 53, 54
Midyat, Ephraim 55
Midyat, Tuma of 36
Milan, Ambrosius of 48
Mina the Egyptian martyr 58
Mina, Metropolitan of Amid, 54
Mingana, Rev. Alphonse 19, 58, 77, 87, 145, 149, 164,
176

Mira, Nicholas bishop of 58
Mirijan, Yaqub bar 11, biography 170
Misri, Dawud al-, 29
Miyafarqin, Jacob, of 28

Miyafarqin, Marutha of (d. 420) 11, 30, 47, 64, 67,
biography 81
Moberg, Axel 98, 157

Modyana, Dionysius bar (ibn) , metropolitan ofMelitene
25, biography, 139-140
Mopsuestia, Theodore of 62, 82
Moses of Agel 61, 67, 70, biography 99
Moses of Inhil 51, biography 116
Moses bar Kifa, 14, 25, 26, 27, 32, 44, 52, 53, 62, 63, 66,75,
80, 89, 90, 107, 123, biography and writings 131-
133; 143, 154, 169, 173, 174
Moses of Kafr Salt 4
Moses of Nisibin 4
Muawiya I, Umayyad Caliph 52
Mubarak bar Dawud of Bartulli 6
Mubarak, Butrus 79
Muhammad Pasha of Rowanduz 170
Muhammad Beg ibn al-Rumi, the philosopher 165
Muhyi al-Din ibn Muhammad ibn Abi al-Shukr al-
Maghribi al-Andalusi 157
Mukaysif, Musa 165
Mukhtar, Pilate (1584) 7

Mundhir, al-. King of the Lakhmid Arabs of al-Hira 97
Muqffa, Severus ibn al-, bishop of the Ashmunin 19
Muqim the martyr, bishop of Beth Laphet 57
Musa ibn al-Adil Ayyub 149
Musa the librarian at Kafrbil 4

Musa, Professor 49

Musa (Moses of Mardin), al-Sawari, metropolitan 104,
173

Musa Ubayd of Sadad, metropolitan of Hims 6, 167
Mutasim, Abu Ishaq al-, Abbasid caliph 128
Mutayra, Ibrahim 37
Muzawwaq, Ibrahim ibn al-. 38

Naal, Athanasius al-,. metropolitn of Miyafarqin 4-5,

120

Nadim, Ibn al- 136

Nafahat al-Khuzam, by Bishop Bulus Bahnam, vii of the
translator’s Introduction
Naftar, Ibrahim 50
Najjar, Matta 55

Najjarin, Yuhanna (John) bar 24
Najran, the Himyarite martyrs of 53, 58
Narcissus 46

Narsi the martyr, bishop of Shahr Qart 57
Narsai 80

Nasir, Abbasid Caliph al- (d. 1223), 151
Nathaniel the ascetic 59

Nau, Francois 15, 16, 33, 56, 86, 99, 106, 107, 108, 113,
122, 150, 157, 175
Nayrab, John 4, 14

Nazianzen, Gregory 14, 17,32,45,47,59, 64, 67, 68, 105,
107, 108, 110, 112, 117, 118, 120, 126,127, 129, 130,
132, 143, 153, 154, 174, 175
Neapolis, Justin of 13
Nicephorus the martyr 58

Nicine, Malkite abbot of the Monastery of Mar Simon
80, his book al-Hawi al-Kabir 81
Nicomachus, an anonymous Pythagorian 66
Nikolaus the Orator 144

Nilus (d. 430), author of Book of Monastic Life 49
Nimat Allah Nur al-Din, Patriarch 9, 1 1, 65, 76, biogra-
phy 168

Nineveh, Isaac of (born in Qatar) author of The Way of
Monas ticism 50
Nisibin, Jacob of 24, 58

Nisibin, Nonnus of 44, 63, 75, 125, biography 128
Nisibin, Moses, Chronicle 52
Nur al-Din, Bishop Tuma 65

Nuzhat al-Adhhan fi Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran, viii of he
translator’s Introduction; 53
Nyssa, Gregory of 14, 47, 58, 59, 67, his writings 68-69,
80,127,143,144,153,154

Oecumenius, count 95, biography 97
Onesimus, disciple of St. Paul 58
Origen 46, 85, 91, 104, 107, 153
Ottel, the ascetic 24, 59
Overbeck, J. J. 83

Pacchomius 56

Palladius, bishop of Helonopolis, The Paradise of the
Fathers A0, 50, 56, 59, Lausians 60, 61, 148

246

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Pantaleon, martyr 58

Pantaleon, priest of the Monastey of Byzantium, his
homily on the Elevation of the Cross 71
Paphnotius, the solitary martyr 58
Paphos and his companion in the village of Magdal near
Antioch 58
Pargoire, J. 78
Parisot, J 78
Parnitus the martyr 57
Paul, Abbot 67

Paul, bishop of Cnotus 32, 49 60
Paul, David bar 1 7, 9, 11, 66, 75
Paul the martyr 57

Paul, metropolitan of Talla, 27, 38, 67, 75, biography
104

Paul, metropolitan of Edessa, 67, 72, 75, biography 105
Paul II, patriarch of Antioch 72, biography 101
Paul of Samosata 67

Paul the Simple, disciple of Antonius 59
Paul and his sister Juliana 60
Peeters, Paul 33, 162

Pelagia, the penitent harlot dancer 55, 60
Pelagius 47

Perfect Life, The by Gregory 49
Perry, Samuel, G. F. 47
Peter the African Patrician 60
Peter of Alexandria, 68

Peter, bishop of Alexandria, the martyr 47, 58

Peter and Muqim, the priests, biography 63

Peter and Paul the apostles, their martyrdom 58

Peter IV, patriarch 48

Peter, a Roman deacon 46

Peter of Raqqa 44

Peter ibn Yusuf of Hims, 53

Phasaj, John , his homily on the Chrism 71

Phethiun the martyr 57

Phillips, G. 16, 112, 113

Philon the ascetic 49

Philologists of St.Matthew’s Monastery, The 118
Philoponus, John 62, 72
Philotheus martyr of Samosata 56
Philoxenus of Mabug, x of the translator’s Introduc-
tion; 4, 8, 20, 25, 27, 32, 44, The Perfect Christian Life
50, 53, 58, 75, 80, 86, biography 88-90, his book The
Trinity and the Incarnation 88 , 105, 129, 132, 143,
153, 154, 170,174

Philoxenus Nimrud, Patriarch (d. 1292), 54, 151, 158,
160

Philoxenus the Scribe, patriarch 38, 42, biography 1 62-
163

Phocas bar Sergius of Edessa, 44, 45, 67, 110; biography
119 Phoebi, the martyr

Piruz the martyr 57
Phrobus (Probus) the martyr 58
Physicians of the Twelfth century 147
Phula, Mar 34, 35

Phylagrius 64
Pictor the martyr 58
Pictorinus, Justa the martyr 58
Pilate, patriarch, 6, 54, 168
Pilate, the story of 61

Placidas also called Eustathius, his wife and children
the martyrs 58
Placiduna 60

Plotine (Plotinus), bishop 58, 62
Plutarch 64
Pococke, Edward 156
Pognon, Henri 5, 64, 175, 176
Polycarp, Chorepiscopus of Mabug 67, biography 85
Pontius, Eucharius the (d. 399) author of Book of the
Hundreds 49

Potifar the priest of Oun 61
Potter, Simon the 11, 30, 75, biography 85; 115
Presbyter Siomn, abbot of the Monastery of the Arabs,
biography 116

Presbyter Simon of the Monastery of Qinnesrin, biogra-
phy 110

Presbyter Simon of Samosata, biogrpahy 116

Proclus (411-485) 46

Proclus of Constantinople (d.444) 29,

Proclus, bishop of Cyprus 29
Probus, disciple of Ibas 62, 67, 103
Protonice, wife of Claudius Caesar 61
Psalms and Praises of Solomon 77
Pseudo- Work of Dionysius the Areopagite 44
Pslates.John 31
Ptolemy, Megiste 66, 1 57
Pythagoras 63

Qabadh, Persian King 51
Qanbar, Mark the Copt 147

Qandasa, Lazarus of Beth 44, 46, 75, biography 121 ; 122
Qaradagh, Persian martyr, military governor of Hidyab
56, 57

Qartamin, Basilius III or IV, metropolitan of 25
Qartamin, John, metropolitan of the Monastery of, 3
Qartamin, Gabriel, bishop of 10, 24, 53, 59
Qartamin, Simon of 59
Qashafo, Dawud (David) 165

Qallisura, Athanasius of 25, 26, 75, biography 134; 135

Qawimi, Ephraim, metropolitan 155

Qawma, patriarch of Tur Abdin 21, biography 163

Qawma the Stylite ascetic 24, 59

Qaydun, (al-Qayduni) Ibrahim of 32, 56, 59

Qaysari, Abu al-Hasan al- 64

Qazan Khan, Mongolian 162

Qazu the martyr 57

Qazwini, Najm al-Din al- 1 55

Qinaya, Bar (who is probably Jacob of Hattakh) 21
Qirdahi (Cardahi), Rev. Jabrail, vii of the translator’s
Introduction; 158, 163, 176
Qirdahi, Khamis 9, 162
Qiqi, Marcus bar, 9, 1 1, 31, 75, biography 136

247

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Qissis, Ishaq Ibn Abi al-Faraj al- 65
Qilhar al-Qulub, viii of the translator’s Introduction
Qudama ibn Jafar al-Baghdadi (d. 947 ) ,Jawahir al-Alfaz
127

Qufer of Tur Abdin 39

Qulzum (Clysma), Malke of 59

Qura, Prince 65

Qurra, Theodore ibn 128

Qusta ibn Luqa of Baalbak 65

Qusuri bishop Bahnam al- 43

Qusuri Daniel al- 6

Qusuri, Ibrahim bar Ghazwi al- 6

Qusuri, priest Shimun (Simon) al- 54

Raabe, Richard 86

Rabula, bishop of Edessa 1 1-12, 1 3, 22, 31 , 42, 47, 55, 56,
58, 60, 67, 75, biography 82-83; 99
Rabban Aaron he Persian, biography 109
Rabban Saliba 29
Rabban Sergius 44

Rahmani, patriarch Aph ram 15, 79, 149, 150
Rai, Malta (or Harma), al-, bishop of al-Hassasa 20
Ramyeshu and Gabriel, masters of the Syriac language
118

Raqqa (Callinicus), Paul ofal-67, 72, 75, 86, biography
91; 112

Raqqa (Callinicus), Peter of 75, biography 103
Renan, Ernest 63, 117, 173, 174

Renedaut, Eusebe, vii, x of the translator’s Introduc-
tion; 16,21,22, 112, 173
Razi, Fakhr al-Din al- 155
Rizq Allah, Bishop 7, 169
Roman us, Ignatius 54

Roman us the martyr and his companions in Antioch 57
Rubil the ascetic 59
Rubaiyyat of Umar al-Khayyam 1 0
Rufina the Silver Merchant, The Spider’s Web 72, biogra-
phy 103-104

Rufil and Benjamin, the Monks, biography 1 33
Rufinus, 56

Rushd, Ibn (Averroes) 61, 173
Ruska, Julius 150
Ryssel, V. 117

Saba, Deacon 13

Saba, the martyr 57

Sabar Yeshu, biography 118

Sabbai, Shimun (Simon) bar 11, 56, 57, biography 77
Sabroy, Malphan (Doctor) 13, 23
Sabuni, Abu Ghalib ibn, biography 140
Sabuni, Said (John) bar, metropolitan of Melitene 9,
11, 25, 26, 28, 29, 33, 44, 75, 88, biography 138-139;
175

Sabur, bishop of Niqatur 57
Sachau, E. 65, 108

Sad, Umayr ibn. Prince of thejazira 19

Sadad, Gurgis (George) Kassab of, metropolitan of

Jerusalem 7
Sadaqa of Ayn Ward 37
Sadiyya al-Yahudi. See Fayyumi
Sahdo Al Shumanna 64, 147
Sahdo of Karkar 7
Sahdo, the priest 1 63
Sahdo Tuma of Tur Abdin 6
Saka, Rev. Yaqub (Jacob) 10, 11, 76, biography 1 71
Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) 149
Salh, Daniel of 130
Salh, David of 127
Salhani, Rev. Anton 156
Saliba of Basibrina, 7
Saliba of Salh 42

Saliba of Qarikara, biography 141; 185
Salibi, Dionysius Jacob bar 11, 14, 15, 18, 21-22, 25, 27,
28, 44, 52, 53, 54, his commentaries on Porphery
and Aristotle 63, 65, 75, 89, 94, 107, 123, 125, 127,
129, 131, 132, 133, 141, biography and writings 142-
145;147,163,164,165,169
Samuel of Ras Ayn, biography 97
Samuel of Samosata 53
Samuel, the monk, biography 83
Samuel the priest 59
Samuel and Simon the ascetics 24, 56
Sanatruq the martyr 57
Sanda, A. 72
Saqlan, Jacob ibn 149

Saqo, Malke 11, 25, 36, 40, 76, biography 164
Saraphion, bishop of Thumis 68
Saraphion, Mara bar, 2 32, 56, 62
Saraphion the martyr of Carthage 58, 60
Sawira (Severus) of Antioch, the monk 14, 78, 98, 107,
111, 117, (d. 861), biography 130
Sawira (Severus) II, bar Mashqa, patriarch, biography
109

Sawira (Severus) Sabukht, 8, 63, Signs of the Zodiac 65,
67, 75, biography 108, 109, 114, 132, 154, 174
Sayf al-Din, prince of Akhur 149
Sayfi, Denha of Salh 36
Sayyad, Maphrian Ibrahim al-, 20
Scete, Daniel of 60
Schonfelder, J. M. 102
Sebaste, the forty martyrs of 24
Sedlacek.J. 144

Sergius, ascetic monk, biography 100
Sergius and Bacchus the martyrs 57
Sergius bishop of al- Rasafa, 58
Sergius Grammaticus 91, 96
Sergius of Hah, 16, 25, 32, 37, 88, biography 166
Sergius bar Karya (Qasir, the Short), 17, 47, 58, 67,
biography 100

Sergius, monk, biography 137-138
Sergius of Ras Ayn 62 , 63, translation of Galen’s Ars
Medica and De Alimentorum Facultalibus 6 4 ,

65, Stephen his assistant 67, 71, 75, 91, his writings
92

248

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Sergius the Stylite, biography 1 04
Sergius bar Yuhanna (John) Ghurayr of Damascus 154
Severus of Antioch (d.538), Philalethes, 4,8,9, 15, 17,24,
27, 29, 31, 32, 38, 41 , 44, 53, 56, 58, 7l, 72, 73, 75, 86,
89, 91, biography and his writings 92-96, 105, 106,
112, 117, 129, 132, 143, 144, 153, 154
Severus bar Zadiqa 118
Severus, Bishop, biography 1 09
Severus, bishop of Samosata 20, 59, biography 106
Shababi, Augustine 158
Shah Armen, The Banu 149
Shahdost the martyr 57

Shahin, Yuhanna, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1755) 7

Shakkoko, Jacob (d. 1231), 20, 142, biography 149

Shalabdini, Zebina 6, 34, 162

Shamli, Said of Hisn Ziyad 26, 36

Shampita the martyr 57

Shamrin, Thomas of 53

Shams al-Dawla of the Tuma family 152

Shamuna, Cyriacus bar, 45

Shamuna the, martyrs 24, 32, 55

Shamuni the Maccabee and her sons 24, 55, 57

Shanudim, the story of 60

Shanudin 32, 49

Shapur (Sapur), Persian king nicknamed Dhu al-Aktaf
(He of he Shoulders) 55, 57, 82
Sharbil, the martyr 55, 56

Shay Allah, Yuhanna XIV, bar, patriarch (d. 1 493) 1 1 ,
53, biography 165
Shaydan, Abd Allah 55
Shinaya (al-Sani), Elias bar 117, 119, 134
Shinurhali, Nerses IV, Armenian catholicos 145
Shiah, Iliyya (Elijah) of Mardin, metropolitn of
Bushayriyya 7

Shufite, priest Mahbub al- 1 32

Shukr Allah Qasabji of Aleppo, maphrian, 55, biogra-
phy 169-170.

Shumanna, Basilius bar, biographyl 42
Shushan.John bar 5, 8, 10, 11, 25, 26, 27, 44, 48, 75, 82,
84, 88, 122, biography 137
Siegfried, O. 135

Simon of Samosata 59, biography 83
Simon Shumays al-Qusuri 54
Simplice, Pope 73

Simon, abbot of the Monastery of Liqin 67, biography
91

Simon of Al Tuma 65

Simon of Amid, 25, 26, 37, biogrpahy 163

Simon of Bartulli 35

Simon of Beth Arsham 8, 20, 58, biography 97
Simon of Hisn Mansur (al-Mansuri), biogrpahy 130
Simon the martyr 57
Simon Mubarak 42

Simon of Nisibin, the deacon, biogrpahy 134
Simon the priest, biography 1 04

Simon and Samuel of the Monastery of Qartamin 60-61
Simon of Samosata 59, biography 51, 83

Simon (Shimun), maphrian ofTur Abdin (d. 1740) 9,
10, 11, 44 Theology, and The Chariot of Mysteries,
biography and writings 169
Simon Thomas the Easterner 157
Sina, Ibn (Avicenna) 61, al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat 63, al-
Qanunfial-Tibb 64, 152, 153, 155, 157, 173
Sinan, al-Harith ibn, of Sanbat 19, 64, 121
Sinjar, Yusuf (Joseph) Khamis of 23
Sleeper Youths of Ephesus (People of the Cave) 57, 99
Smith, R. Payne 70, 102

Sobto, Aziz bar (Ibn al-Ajuz), The Ascent of the Mind, 44,
The Way ofTruth50, 76, biography and writings 164
Sobto, Lazarus bar 3, 5,9,11,16, 17 Revision of the service
of the Holy Eucharist, 20, 21, 23, 24, 44, 75, biography
and writings 126
Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 5 1
Sophia the martyr and her three daughters 57
Sosypatrus, the priest 45
Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 51
Sprengling, Martin 153, 174, 176
Stephen, bishop 59
Stephen, the monk 34
Stephen I, Pope 67
Stratonice and Seleucus of Cyzicus 58
Studia Syriaca by Rahmani 1 5
Stylite, Joshua. See Yeshu Joshua
Stylite Simon the 24, 56, 59. 83
Sylvester, Pope 61, 99

Syrian monk thought to b the writer of the history
ascribed to Zachariah of Mitylene 99
Subawi, Abd Yeshu al- 7, 9, 82, 129, 166
Subhi, George 157

Sudayli, Stephen bar, biography 85, TheBookofHierotheos
, 85, 90

Sulayman of Mardin, Maphrian 6
Sus, Miles, bishop of 57, biogrpahy 77
Symmachus, author of the story of Cain and Abel 61
Syriac Documents 4, 44

Syrian Scholars of the Tenth Century, 135-136

Tabari, Ali ibn Rabban al-. Kitab al-Din wa al-Dawla 19
Tahdhib al-Akhlaq by Yahya ibn Adi, viii of he translator’s
Introduction

Tahmasp, Persian king 54

Taj al-Dawla Abu Tahir of Al Tuma (the Tuma Family)
9,65,151

Taj al-Din of Bartulli 151, 152

Takrit, Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Jarir of, Kitab al-Murshid 22,
64, 65

Takrit, Andrew of 31

Takrit Basilius IV bar Qubad of 23

Takrit, Christophorus Sergius of 48

Takrit, Habib Abu Raita of 63, biography 125

Takrit, Theodorus of 14, 53

Takriti, Al-Fadl ibnjarir al- 64, 65

Talya the ascetic 59, 61

Tall Kummathri, Simon of 14

249

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Tall Mawzalt, Paul of 12
Talla, Theodosius of 14
Tanis, Phineas the martyr 57
Tang the martyr 57
Tanwah, Paul of 60
Tarachus the martyr 58
Tarbu the martyr 57

Tarrazi, Viscount Philip de, ix of the translator’s Intro-
duction

Tarsus, Dionysius metropolitan of 72

Tatian of Adiabene 12, 13, 130

Tataq and the ten martyrs of Beth Garmai 57

Tatun the martyr 57

Taybutha, Simon 50, 64

Tayyib, Abu al-Faraj Abd Allah ibn al-. 13

Testament of Adam 15

Thaalibi, Abu Mansur al-. (d. 1033), Fiqh al-Lugha 127

Thamistius, 64

Tharmaka, Marcus of 49, 60

Thaumaturgus, Gregory 58, 64, 67

Theane, Appolonius 64

Theano, female philosopher 63

Thebes, John the Apocalyptic ascetic of (d. 390) 49

Thecla the martyr 57

Theodora, Empress 97, 100

Theodore of Antioch, the philosopher 65, biography
149

Theodore bar Kuni 77
Theodore of Mopsuestia 82
Theodorus bar Zarudi, biography 1 23
Theodosius bishop of Jerusalem, 51, 55, 58
Theodosius, Emperor 58, 82

Theodosius, patriarch of Alexandria 47, 72, 100, 125
Theodosius, patriarch of Antioch, biography and his
writings 130-131

Theodosius II, patriarch of Constantinople 146
Theodosius, the martyr of Epchacta 24
Theodosius, the monk, biography 122
Theodosius, metropolitan of Edessa, biography 126
Theodosius Romanus, patriarch, x of the translator’s
Introduction; 64

Theodolus (Abd Allah), his homily on St. George the
martyr 7l
Theodotus 56, 58
Theodotus of Amid, 53, 59
Theophanes, 52
Theophile 56

Theophilus, patriarch of Antioch 13
Theorianus, philosopher and emissary of Manuel I,
Comnenus 146
Thomaius the martyr nun 57
Thomas of Amid, 67, biography 109
Thomas the Apostle 58
Thomas Aquinas 46
Thomas, bishop 47

Thomas, bishop of Germanicia, biography 97-98
Thomas the deacon 67, biography 105

Thomas the priest, biography 1 06
Thomas the solitary 59
Thomas the stylite, biography 126
Thomas the stylite of Talla 160
Tiflis, John of 67, biography 149
Timothy II, of Alexandria 27, 38, 47, 71
Timothy III, of Alexandria 94
Timothy I, catholicos 68

Timothy, metropolitan ofKarkar, 9 biography 140

Tirminazi, Yeshu al- 85, 125

Timur Lang (Tamerlane) 163

Trisagion, The 83, 84

Tubana, the Monk, biography 116

Tubana, Santa 13

Tuma (Thomas) of Hah, the ascetic 25, biography 160

Tuma of Mardin 4

Tusi, Nasir al-Din al- 155

Tychsen, Olaf 65

Tyrhani, Amr ibn Matt al- 57

Umayr ibn Sad ibn Abi Waqqas al-Ansari 106
Usaybia, Ibn Abi 64, 134
Uthman ibn Anbasa al-Raqqi 127

Vaschalde, A. A. 89, 112
Valise the priest 72
Valantinus, Roman Emperor 48
Van Douwen, W. G 103
Vindanius of Beirut 65

Wafa, the Aramaean, 1,2, 11, 75, biography 76
Wafa, Abu al- 75

Wahbun, Theodorus bar 11,17, 44, 54, 75, and writings
biography 146

Walid, al- ibn Abd al-Malik, Umayyad caliph 116
Wank (al-Wanki), Metropolitan (Gurgis) George Wanes
(Vaness) Najjar of Cappadocia and then Edessa (d.
1624) 7, 40, 54, biography 168
Warda, the nun martyr 57

Wright, William, A Short History of Syriac Literature, vii, x
of the translator’s Introduction; xii of the author’s
Preface; 15, 86, 97, 108, 121, 135, 136, 173, 174
Wuhayb, Patriarch Ignatius (Zakhi) bar 7, 2 1 , 22, 48, 76,
biography and writingsl61

Xenophon the noble and his sonsjohn and Arcadius 60
Xystus II, Pope of Rome 46, 67

Yabrudi, Abu al-Faraj al- 64, 65
Yahudi, Sadiyya al- 19

Yahya ibn Adi, 63, 64, 65, 75, biogrpahy and writings 1 34
Yaish of Basibrina 6

Yamin al-Dawla Muhammad ibn Subuktakin, governor
of Bukhara 134
Yarmuk, battle of (636) 51
Yareth, the story of 59

Yeshu Al Tuma the priest of Hisn Kifa, 54, 65, 151

250

History of Syriac Literature and Sciences

Yeshu bar Ali, 8
Yeshu bar Kilo. See Kilo
Yeshu Bakr 120

Yeshu of Basibrina, 25, 26, 36, 76, biography 164-165

Yeshu the Iberian, metropolitan of Jerusalem 6, 10

Yeshu (the Intruder), Michael 20

Yeshu of the Malphan Monastery 41

Yeshu, metropolitan of Raban, 6

Yeshu of Melitene 9

Yeshu I, patriarch 54

Yeshu, the priest who translated the Chronicle of Michal
Rabo into Armenian 67
Yeshu of Qusur (al-Qusuri) 55, biography 169
Yeshu Saftana, biography 148-149
Yeshu Shini, of Bedlis 6
Yeshu Sabran 118

Yeshu (Joshua) the Stylite, biography 86; 88, 122

Yeshu Yab 158

Yeshu Yab bar Malkun 150

Yeshudad al-Marwazi, Nestorian bishop of Haditha 78

Yuhanna Bacchus of Bartulli 155

Yunadab the Rechabites 61

Yunan (Jonah) the martyr 57

Yunan, the Periodeutes 63

Yusr, the deacon Abu al- 64

Yusuf al-Gurji, metropolitan of Jerusalem, biography
167

Zachariah Rhetor, Bishop of Mitylene, Ecclesiastical His-

tory 51, 58, 61 , 73, 75, 81 , 86, 90, 91 , 93, 97, biogra-
phy 98; 99

Zahrat al-Maarifby the Chorepiscopusjacob of Qutrubul
8

Zakhi (Nicolas) , bishop of Mira in Greece 24
Zangi, Nur al-Din ( his invasion of al-Ruha (Edess in
1144), 142

Zarudi, Theodore bar 44
Zaruqa, Abu al- Hasan 1 1

Zaydan, Jurji, Kitab Tarikh Adab al-Lugha al-Arabiyya, ix
of the translator’s Introduction
Zayna, Mar, bishop of Baremman 24
Zaytun al-Nahli (of Inhil) 9, 10, 11, biography 170
Zaytuni, Simon, bishop of Harran 3, 34, 35, 44, 53, 56,
59, biography 118
Zaz, Mansur of 43

Zaz, Masudof (d. 1512) 11,25,31, The Spiritual Ship, 44,
50, 53, 76

Zeno, Emperor 60, 73, the Henoticon, 99
Zenobius, pupil of St. Ephraim 8
Zettersteen, 1C V. 82
Zia Shalita, the story of 59
Zubi.John Bar 7, 129

Zuqaqi I, Dionysius Malke, metropolitan of Madan 54
Zuqnin, the anonymous historian monk from the mon-
astery of, 51, biography 121
Zura, Abu Ali Isa ibn 63, 65, 75, biography 136
Zura, Isaac ibn 63, 64

Zura of Nisibin, The deacon, 14, biography 131

251

About the Translator

Matti Moosa is a native of Mosul, Iraq, where he studied and practiced law
before emigrating to the United States. He holds an MA and Ph.D degrees from
Columbia University in New York. He is a Middle Eastern scholar with profound
insight into the cultures of the Middle East including the history and literary
writings of the Fathers of the Syrian Church. His publications include The Wives
of the Prophet (ed.), Gibran in Paris (ed.), The Maroniles in History, Extremist Shiites:
the Ghulat Sects, The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz: Images of Modem Egypt, and The
Origins of Modem Arabic Fiction in second edition. He also contributed many
articles on different aspects of Middle Eastern history and culture published in
leading periodicals including a monograph in three parts on “Studies in Syriac
Literature,” The Moslem World, 1968.

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